
TOPrCAi 

SUFLVE.Y 

OF 

UNITED 
iSTATES 
HISTORY 



1 11 



CORNMAK 



GERSON 





A BRIEF TOPICAL SURVEY 

OF UNITED STATES 

HISTORY 



BY 
OLIVER P. COENMAN, Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 



OSCAR GERSON, Ph.D. 

PRINCIPAL GERMANTOWN HIGH SCHOOL 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 



REVISED 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 






Copyright, 1901, 1911, and 1917, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 

1f7 



■^o: 



<§« 



OCT -4 1917 
5CU473831 



PREFACE 



This little work has been prepared in response to a general demand 
for a text-book which could be employed in teaching United States 
history by means of topical reviews. The topical outlines found in 
many of our best text-books have proved unsatisfactory as a means 
of review, since their use does not result in much more than a mere 
restudy of the original text. In order to present the historical review 
from new and interesting points of view, many teachers have found 
it necessary to prepare outlines or syllabi of lectures that their classes 
may be furnished with definite material for study. The present work 
is an outgrowth of a series of such notes prepared by the authors for 
use in their respective schools. 

The necessity for review is universally admitted. Almost all 
courses of study call for topical reviews in the various subjects of 
instruction, especially in history. Sound psychological and pedagogi- 
cal considerations demand that this review should not consist of mere 
repetition, but should, as far as possible, be presented in fresh guise, 
and aid the pupil in organizing the knowledge which he has already 
acquired. The various elements of the matter to be reviewed should 
be closely interrelated, essential features emphasized, and a broader 
range of view disclosed, so that the knowledge as a whole may form 
an apperceptive system to which future acquisitions may be readily 
related. In the present work the attempt has been made to furnish 
a text for such a method of reviewing United States history. 

In adding this book to the large number of text-books on United 
States history already published, the authors feel that a further word 
of apology or justification is demanded. Many text-books attempt to 
steer a middle course between a reading book and study book. This 
attempt seems a rather unfortunate one, as neither end is attained, 
the result being a book not interesting enough to constitute a good 
reading book, nor yet concise enough for purposes of study. The 
present work is frankly a bi'o?^- to be studied. The elimination of all 
unnecessary detail has made possible the preparation of a brief, yet 



iv PREFACE 

comprehensive, review. Of course, the book assumes a previous 
detailed study of the facts of United States history, being intended 
for the use of pupils who have completed the study of one of the 
ordinary school histories. It is, therefore, especially adapted for use 
in higher grammar grades or in high schools. 

For certain practical reasons, a comprehensive review of United 
States history by pupils of the upper grammar grades is very desir- 
able. A large majorit}'^ of such pupils do not enter the high school, 
and it is therefore important that they should not go out into the 
world with their knowledge of history an inchoate mass of details, 
but that they should have, as far as possible, a broad knowledge of 
the history of their country and an intelligent attitude toward its 
institutions. 

Acknowledgments are due to Professor Franklin Spencer Edmonds, 
of the Central High School, Philadelphia, who kindly read the manu- 
script of the work and made several valuable suggestions. The 
authors are also greatly indebted to Professor William MacDonald, of 
Brown University, for valuable assistance in the revision of the 
proof sheets. 

Since the last revision of the book, many important events have 
occurred. There has also been considerable change in the attitude 
of the national and state governments toward far-reaching social and 
economic reforms. The present edition brings the purely historical 
chronology up to date and also attempts to indicate clearly govern- 
mental tendencies and ideals of to-day. 

O. P. C. 
O. G. 
June, 1917. 



CONTENTS 

PAKT I 
ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER PA6B 

I. Discoveries and Explorations ...... 2 

II. Colonization of America — Establishment of English 

Supremacy ......... 14 

III. The War for Independence ...... 30 

IV. The Adoption of a New Form of Government . . 40 
V. Establishment of the New Government ... 52 

PART II 

TROUBLES AT HOME AND ABROAD 

VI. Troubles with Foreign Countries ..... 64 
VII. Indian Wars — Slavery and the Civil War ... 78 

PART III 

FINANCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

VIII. Financial History 98 

IX. History of Political Parties Ill 



VI 



CONTENTS 



PART IV 



GROWTH AND PROGRESS 

CBAPTER 

X. Growth in Territory and Popclation . 

XL Progress in Science and the Useful Arts 

XII. Progress in Education .... 

XIII. Growth of American Literature 

XIV. Problems of To-day and the Near Future 



PAGE 

128 
143 
103 

175 
188 



APPENDICES 

A. The Constitution of the United States .... 1 

B. Glossary of Terms 41 

C. Comparative View of the Governments of the United 

States and Great Britain ....... 45 

Index ............. 53 



LIST OF MAPS 



Map of Early Voyages .... 

Map to illustrate the French Explorations 

Map of the Spanish Claim .... 

Map of the English Claim .... 

Map of the French Claim .... 

Map of the Dutch Claim .... 

Central North America, 1755, at the Beginning of the French and 

Indian War 

Central North America, 1763, after the French and Indian War 
Reference Map for the Revolution. l!^orthern and Middle States 
Reference Map for the Revolution. Southern States 
Lewis and Clark's Route ...... 

Route of the National Road 

Reference Maps for the War of 1812 

Map of the Mexican War ...... 

Territory acquired from Mexico as the Result of the Mexican War 
The United States in 1820, showing the Missouri Compromise 
Reference Map for the Civil War, 1861-1865 . 

Campaigns in Virginia 

Territorial Growth of the United States, 1783-1867 

The Centre of Population, from 1790 to 1900 . 

The Westward Movement of Population . 

Chart showing how the Number of Immigrants has varied 

Map of the Erie Canal 

vii 



PAGE 

9 
11 
12 
12 
13 
13 

28 

28 

34 

38 

60 

61 

67 

71 

72 

85 

92 

94 

132 

137 

138 

140 

153 



A WORD TO THE TEACHER 



This book is not a digest or chronology to be committed to memory 
by the pupils. It should rather be looked upon as notes taken in 
advance, as it were, for the pupils, to be utilized by them for purposes 
of home study, in order that the essentials of the instruction may be 
fixed and retained. The study of each part and chapter should sup- 
plement, not precede, the careful presentation of the topic by the 
teacher. 

The teacher, in his presentation of the subject, should have recourse 
to such works as would invest it with a real and live interest. For 
this purpose original sources should be employed as far as possible. 
A very suggestive treatment of such sources for younger pupils will 
be found in " Studies in American History " by Mary S. and Earl 
Barnes. For more extensive work of this character Hart's " Ameri- 
can History told by Contemporaries " will be found very useful. Tlie 
teacher will also find in John Fiske's series of histories and in John 
Bach McMaster's great work, "The History of the Peoj^le of the 
United States," many topics presented so clearly and graphically as to 
be well within the range of comprehension of pupils of the higher 
grammar grades. Appropriate selections from tliese and other works 
should be read and discussed in class, and the pupils should be 
encouraged to make use of the great standard histories for collateral 
reading and for the preparation of essays upon special topics. Many 
of the historical articles of current literature may be similarly utilized, 
and the pupils' reading of fiction may also be directed along historical 
lines. 

Channing and Hart's " Guide to the Study of American History " 
will be found an invaluable reference book for the teacher of history. 



PART I 

ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER I 

The Period of Discovery and Exploration 

The Renascence and its Consequences 
Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 
English Discoveries and Explorations 
French Discoveries and Explorations 
Dutch Discoveries and Explorations . 
Conflict of Claims .... 



PAOE 

3 

6 
7 

10 
12 
13 



CHAPTER II 

Colonization of America and Establishment of English Supremacy 

Period of Colonization 15 

The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast . . 16 

The New England Colonies 16 

The Middle Colonies 18 

The Southern Colonies , .20 

Government of the Colonies 21 

The French in America 25 

The Establishment of English Supremacy 26 

CHAPTER III 

The War for Independence 

Causes of the. Revolutionary War 31 

Principal Events of the War ........ 34 

First Period (1775-76, principally in New England and Canada) 34 

Second Period (1776-78, principally in the Middle States) . . 37 

Third Period (1778-81, principally in the Southern States) . 39 

CHAPTER IV 

The Adoption of a New Form of Government 

Consolidation of Colonies . .41 

Early Plans for General Union . 43 

Steps leading to the Constitution 44 

Articles of Confederation ......... 46 

Formation of the Constitution 48 

CHAPTER V 

Establishment of the New Government 

Domestic Affairs 53 

Foreign Complications 56 

Growth and Development 59 



CHAPTER I 
THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 

The Renascence and its Consequences. — 1. The Renascence. 
2. The New Spirit shown in Geograpliy. 3. The Trade with India. 
4. New Geographical Ideas — Christopher Columbus. 5. Search 
for a Passage through the New Continent. G. Motives of Early 
Explorations. 

Spanish Discoveries and Explorations. —7. Superiority of the Span- 
ish Claim. 8. Discovery and Exploration of Florida. 9. Discovery 
of the Mississippi. 10. First Permanent Settlement in America. 
11. The Spanish Claim. 

English Discoveries and Explorations. — 12. Voyages of the Cabots. 
13. Other p:nglish Explorers. 14. First Attempts at Colonization. 
15. The English Claim. 

French Discoveries and Explorations. — 16. Early French Explor- 
ers. 17. Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. 18. The French 
Claim. 

Dutch Discoveries and Explorations. — 19. Henry Hudson. 20. The 
Dutch Claim. 

Conflict of Claims. —21. Dutch and French Possessions secured by 
the English. 



CHAPTER I 

THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
I. The Renascence and its Consequences 

1. The Renascence. — For about a thousand years after the 
fall of Rome (476 a.d.) civilization declined. Very little 
attention was given to learning; ignorance and superstition 
prevailed. This period is often termed the Dark Ages. In 
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, however, Europe awoke, 
as it were, from its long intellectual slumber. This period of 
awakening is known as the Renascence. Various causes helped 
to produce it. One of the important events of the period was 
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. Hundreds 
of Greek scholars fled before the conquering Mohammedans, 
and carried learning and a zeal for study with them to Italy 
and other parts of Western Europe. Numerous books were 
thus brought to the notice of eager students in Italy, Germany, 
England, France, and Spain, and libraries were formed. There 
was increased activity of thought in all fields, but especially 
in science, with the result that numerous inventions were made. 
Among these were the printing press, which helped to spread 
the newly acquired learning; gunpowder, which, taking the 
place of the crude weapons of earlier times (spears, lances, etc.), 
made the foot-soldier the match of the mounted knight ; and 
the astrolabe and compass, which rendered possible the exten- 
sive voyages of this period. 

2. The New Spirit shown in Geography. — Geography was 
one of the sciences which received especial attention. The old 
ideas in regard to the shape and size of the earth were ques- 
tioned. Crusaders who had travelled over Europe and Asia 
into Palestine to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the Moham- 

3 



4 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY" 

medans, came back with much interesting and wonderful infor- 
mation about the countries and peoples they had visited. As 
a result of these accounts, many were impelled to travel and 
make geographical discoveries from mere love of adventure. 
Many of the descriptions of foreign countries were nothing but 
glowing exaggerations of imaginative writers. These stories, 
however, were widely read, and did much to create a longing 
to visit the strange lands and also to obtain a share of the great 
wealth which they were reputed to possess. 

3. The Trade with India. — There had long been a consider- 
able trade carried on between India and various Mediterranean 
ports. Venice and Genoa especially were centres of this com- 
merce, importing large quantities of spices, silks, and precious 
stones. The pirates who infested the Mediterranean, and the 
brigands of the deserts who plundered the caravans on their 
overland routes to the Indies, made the commerce particularly 
dangerous. Another route to India was therefore eagerly 
sought. One of the first plans to suggest itself was that of 
sailing around the southern point of Africa and thence north- 
east to India. This attempt was successfully made by the 
Portuguese, whose excellent geographical position gave them a 
great advantage. In 1487 a Portuguese navigator, Bartolomeo 
Diaz, discovered the Cape of Good Hope, and ten years later 
(five years after America had been discovered) Vasco da Gama 
succeeded in reaching India by sailing around the coast of 
Africa. 

4. New Geographical Ideas — Christopher Columbus. — At 
the same time that these discoveries were being made, the 
writings of the ancients which had now found their way into 
Western Europe were eagerly being read by many students. 
In certain respects the people had retrograded during the 
Middle or Dark Ages. Superstition and ignorance character- 
ized many of their beliefs. This was especially true of their 
ideas concerning geography. Most of the people of that day 
believed the earth to be flat, although some of the ancient 
writers and geographers had reached the conclusion that it 



DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 6 

was round. Among those who were bold enough to adopt 
the ancient belief was the Genoese sailor, Christopher Columbus. 
So sure was he in regard to the true shape of the earth that 
he wished to make the attempt to reach India by sailing west. 
With the aid of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain 
he finally succeeded in fitting out three small vessels. After 
a discouraging voyage of seventy days the island of San Salva- 
dor, one of the Bahama Islands, was sighted (1492). He also 
discovered Cuba and other islands of the West Indies, taking 
possession of all the land in the name of the King and Queen 
of Spain, He made three other voyages, in one of Avhich, 1498, 
he touched the mainland of America at the mouth of the 
Orinoco River. Columbus did not know that he had discovered 
a new continent, but thought that the land was India. Many 
others made this error, which was natural enough since they 
were ignorant as to the real size of the earth, thinking it much 
smaller than it really is. INIoreover, they had no suspicion of 
the existence of a large continent between Europe and Asia. 

5. Search for a Passage through the New Continent. — It 
soon became known, however, that the newly discovered land 
was really a new continent, and not merely a portion of Asia. 
Numerous attempts were then made to find a way through or 
around it. Nunez de Balboa, a Spaniard, while searching for 
gold in Central America, discovered the Pacific Ocean (1513). 
This led to the belief that the whole continent was very 
narrow, and explorers became anxious to find a water route 
through it, so that they could reach the coveted shores of 
India. Magellan, a Portuguese, in command of a Spanish 
fleet, by sailing through the straits which bear his name, dis- 
covered the first and only practicable water route which has 
been discovered through America (1520). One of the vessels of 
tlie fleet succeeded in circumnavigating the globe, thus definitely 
proving the earth to be round. 

6. Motives of Early Explorations. — As soon as it became 
known that a new continent had been discovered, various 
nations of Europe hastened to claim its territory. Spain, Eng- 



6 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

land, France, and Holland were most active, and all sent out 
explorers to take possession of the land in the name of their 
respective sovereigns. There were, however, many who sailed 
to the New World from other motives, — some to acquire 
riches, some to Christianize the natives, and some merely 
to seek adventure. A knowledge of these early discoveries 
and explorations is important, as the different nations of 
Europe based their claims to land in the New World upon 
them. 

II. Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

7. Superiority of the Spanish Claim. — Of the various nations 
Spain seemed to have he best claim to the newly discovered 
land. It was in Spain that Columbus had secured the assist- 
ance which enabled him to make the famous voyage of dis- 
covery, and he had taken possession of the land in the name 
of the Spanish king and queen. Spain's formal claim to the 
New World was based upon an edict of Pope Alexander VI 
(1493), who had divided the " Heathen Lands " between Spain 
and Portugal, the line of demarcation leaving for Portugal, 
however, but a small portion of what is now known as Brazil. 
There were three other important Spanish explorers who heli)ed 
to justify Spain's claim. These were Ponce de Leon, Ferdinand 
de Soto, and Coronado. 

8. Discovery and Exploration of Florida. — Ponce de Leon 
had been governor of Porto Kico, but on being removed from 
that office he determined to make explorations to the north- 
ward. Two important motives led him to take this step. 
These were the hope of discovering gold and of finding the 
" Fountain of Youth " which was reported to exist in that 
region. He was disappointed in both of these expectations, 
but he took possession of the southern portion of North America 
(1513). He named the country Florida because he had landed 
on Easter Sunday, called in Spanish Pascua Florida. He later 
made an unsuccessful attempt to colonize the country that he 
had discovered. 



DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 7 

9. Discovery of the Mississippi. — In 1539 De Soto undertook 
to subdue Florida. He set out from Cuba with a large force 
of men and horses, determined to find treasures of gold and to 
conquer the Indians. They failed to find gold, but discovered 
the Mississippi River, in whose waters De Soto himself was 
buried. Only half of the number who started out reached the 
Spanish settlements in Mexico. They had wandered for two 
years through the region which now comprises the states of 
Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. 

Coronado (1540), the Spanish governor of a Mexican province, 
explored the southwestern part of what is now the United 
States. 

10. First Permanent Settlement in America. — Menendez, who 
was sent out to conduct an expedition against some French 
intruders in Florida, succeeded in- driving them out and in 
founding St. Augustine (1565) — the first permanent settle- 
ment in America, 

11. The Spanish Claim. — As a result of these discoveries 
and explorations by De Leon, De Soto, and Coronado, as well 
as the original discovery of America by Columbus, Spain laid 
claim to a large portion of North America. The claim stretched 
northward without any definite limit, embracing a large part 
of the territory now occupied by the United States. 

m. English Discoveries and Explorations 

12. Voyages of the Cabots. — John Cabot, a Venetian, living 
in Bristol, England, was possibly the first to discover the con- 
tinent of America (1497). Henry VII, who was then king of 
England, encouraged him to voyage westward, as Columbus 
had done, in order to find a " northwestern passage " to India 
and China, and thus secure the trade of that region for Eng- 
land. He failed in this, but seems to have discovered the 
mainland of America, landing somewhere in the region about 
the mouth of the St. Lawrence. He took possession of the 
land in the name of the king of England. Sebastian Cabot, a 



8 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

son of John Cabot, in 1498 explored the coast of North Americ 
from Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras, also taking possession o 
this land in the name of Henry VII. 

13. Other English Explorers.: — It was not until nearly eight 
years after the voyages of the Cabots that the English attempte 
to make explorations in the West. Since the Portuguese ha 
discovered the route around southern Africa (see § 3), they ha 
controlled the commerce of the Indies. In 1576 Sir Marti 
Frobisher set out to find a northwestern passage to Indi; 
but accomplished nothing of any moment. Captain John Davi 
later made a similar attempt, but also failed. 

In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a half brother of Sir Walte 
Raleigh, secured a charter from Queen Elizabeth, granting hii 
any lands he might discover in America. His first expeditio 
failed, but in 1583 he made another attempt and landed t 
Newfoundland, taking possession of it for the queen. On hi 
homeward voyage Gilbert, together with the crew of his sma 
vessel, were lost in a storm. 

In 1577 Sir Francis Drake started on a plundering exped 
tion against the Spaniards in South America. He reached tli 
Pacific by way of Magellan Strait and then sailed Horthwarc 
expecting to find a passage through to the Atlantic whic 
might be used as a route for trading with the Indies. He too 
possession of the western coast of North America and called : 
New Albion. He returned to England by way of the Cape < 
Good Hope, being thus the first Englishman to circumnav 
gate the globe. 

14. First Attempt at Colonization. — The purpose of most ( 
the early explorations was to iiud ;i way through the ne 
continent to India. Sir Walter Raleigh, however, believe 
that America might be a valuable land to settle and colonizi 
The grant of land which he received from Queen Elizabet 
extended from Maine to Georgia, and was named Virginia i 
honor of the queen. Although his attempts ,at colonizatio 
proved failures, they were important because they were th 
first serious efforts to plant an English nation in America. 



Z T^ 







GREENLAND 



Davis 



inC-r) '^'a'i.r 



N FL T ijHicik 

\ ^ r ' N A T L A N T 



I c 



E R I' C _A \ ~i~^-iSi~-.~.-.-. feyjl 



New Albion 



J>J CARTIER '16"35" 



I ) SPAIN/-; 
AZORES--. r if'^'pS 



MADEIRA/ .-^ 



< j^ ;.;ST JliUSTINt CANARY IS./^-'f 

^ "'a-^'ir"'''' J"'^ rfii'- 

m ''•{V^_— —^ COLUMBUS 1492 ^ '. 






c E A n;-/ ■ 



Balboa 1513 



P A C I F 1 C\ 



OCEAN 



t^;~^ S QOI T H -)/V 



■•^(i. AMERICA l;-:?' 



*'^G>;v- 



'^0 '-.... 



Strait of Magella 



in '^=— ^ Cape Horn 



Map of 
EARLY VOYAGES 



10 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

15. The English Claim. — As a result of these discoveries 
and explorations, especially those of the Cabots, England laid 
claim to all the land from Florida to Labrador on the Atlantic 
coast, and westward to the Pacific. 

IV. French Discoveries and Explorations 

16. Early French Explorers. — No attempt was made by the 
French to obtain possessions in the New World until 1523, 
when Francis I sent out an exploring expedition under Verraz- 
zani. He explored the coast of North America from North 
Carolina to Newfoundland in 1524, discovering New York and 
Narragansett bays. 

Cartier was the next Frenchman to explore the New World. 
In 1535 he discovered the St. Lawrence River and sailed up to 
what is now the city of Montreal. He later made an unsuc- 
cessful attempt to plant a colony in Canada. 

In 1G08 Champlain, a famous French explorer, sailed up the 
St. Lawrence as far as Quebec, establishing the first permanent 
French colony in America. He later set out on an exploring 
expedition, getting as far south as the lake which bears his 
name, and claiming the country for France. 

17. Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. — The main pur- 
pose of the French Jesuit missionaries, members of a Roman 
Catholic order, in coming to America was to convert the Indians 
to the Catholic faith. These missionaries were fired with reli- 
gious zeal, and spared themselves no pain or privation to secure 
their ends. They accomplished a great work in the conversion 
of the Indians, living in the regions which they explored, at the 
same time taking possession of the land in the name of France. 

In 1G73 Joliet, a French explorer and trader, together with 
Father Marquette, a Jesuit priest, started on an expedition 
from Canada to find the Mississippi River. They made their 
way in canoes until they finally reached the river and were 
borne by the current to the region which De Soto had explored 
over a hundred years before. They feared to go farther south 
on account of the unfriendliness of the Indians. They then 



DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 



11 



had to paddle up the river against the current to their starting- 
piace. 

Six years later (1679) an attempt was made by La Salle to 




Map to illustrate French Explorations 

complete the work begun by Joliet and Marquette. He went 
down the Mississippi, building forts on his way, and, after 
suffering great hardship, succeeded in reaching the Gulf of 



12 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



Mexico. He had previously explored the Ohio. To this entire 
region he gave the name of Ijouisiana, in honor of Louis XIV, 
then king of France. Chicago, Mobile, and New Orleans were 
indirectly the result of these explorations. 

18. The French Claim. — New France embraced the region 
from New York to Labrador on the Atlantic, and included 
Acadia (Nova Scotia), Canada, and the basin of the Great 




Spanish Claim 



English Claim 



Lakes and the Mississippi River. The claim to it was founded 
chiefly on the discoveries of Verrazzani, Cartier, and La Salle. 



V. Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 

19. Henry Hudson. — The motive which prompted the first 
Dvitch exploiation was to find a passage through the continent 
to Lidia and China. This work was intrusted to Captain Henry 
Hudson, an Englishman in the employ of Holland. He reached 
the east coast of Greenland and explored the surrounding 
region. Later, in 1609, he set out in the service of the Dutch 
East India Company. He reached Nova Scotia, then sailed 
southward, exploring the coast as far as Chesapeake Bay. He 
then explored the river named for him, ascending it as far 
as the spot where Albany now stands. In 1014 Holland, 
finding from Hudson's report that a valuable fur trade could 
be carried on Avith the Indians, took possession of the valley of 



DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 



13 



the Hudson E-iver, naming it New Netlierlancl. In 1623 the 
Dutch built a fort on the upper Hudson, which they named 
Fort Orange. They also made a treaty with the Iroquois 
Indians, which the latter kept faithfully. 

20. The Dutch Claim. — New Netherland extended from Cape 
May to Nova Scotia and indefinitely westward, the claim to it 
being founded upon Hudson's discoveries and explorations. 




French Claim 



Dutch Claim 



VI. Conflict of Claims 

21. Dutch and French Possessions secured by the English. — 

It will be seen from the accompanying maps how the claims 
of these nations conflicted. This overlapping of claims, how- 
ever, did not lead to serious trouble until the country became 
more thickly settled. In 1664 the English, under Nicolls, took 
possession of New Netherland and changed its name to New 
York. England thus had control of the Atlantic coast of North 
America, while the French held Canada and the Mississippi 
Valley, and the Spanish, Florida and Mexico. 

The dispute over conflicting claims was ended by the French 
and Indian War. The battle of Quebec settled the question 
of supremacy in North America. France ceded Louisiana to 
Spain, and retained only two small islands off the coast of 
Newfoundland. Spain lost Florida, and England finally ob- 
tained control of North America east of the Mississippi. 



CHAPTER II 

COLONIZATION OF AMERICA AND ESTABLISHMENT OF 
ENGLISH SUPREMACY 

Period of Colonization. — 22. The Seventeenth Centuiy. 23. The Most 
Successful Nations. 24. Length of the Colonizing Period. 

The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast. — 
25. Causes of Difference iu the Characteristics of tlie Colonies. 
2(5. 'i'lie Three Zones. 

The New England Colonies. — 27. The Puritans in New England. 
28. (iniwtli and Prosperity. 

The Middle Colonies. — 2i». Motives of the Settlers. 30. New Nether- 
laud. 31. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. 32. Lord Bal- 
timore and Maryland. 33. Growth and Prosperity of the Middle 
Colonics. 

The Southern Colonies. — 34. Virginia. 35. Character of Settlers and 
Early Difficulties. 30. The Colony firmly Established. 37. The Caro- 
linas and Georgia. 38. Cliaracterand Mode of Life. 

Government of the Colonies. — 39. The Three Forms of Colonial Gov- 
ernment. 40. Charter Government. 41. Proprietary Government. 
42. Royal or Provincial Government. 48. CommonFeaturesofthe.se 
Three Forms. 44. Differences. 45. Effects upon the Rights of the 
People. 46. Special Local Features of Government. 47. The Town 
System of New England. 48. The County System of Virginia. 

The French in America. — 40. Attempts at Colonization. 50. "Work of 
the Missionaries. 51. Efforts to establish an Empire. 

Establishment of English Supremacy. — 52. Origin of the Conflict. 
53. Intercolonial Wars. 54. The French and Indian War. 55. Im- 
portant Strategic Points. 56. First Important United Action of the 
Colonies. 57. Success of the English. 58. The Treaty of Peace. 
69. Effects of the French and Indian War. 



14 



CHAPTER II 

THE COLONIZATION OF AMERICA AND ESTABLISHMENT 
OF ENGLISH SUPREMACY 

I. Period of Colonization 

22. The Seventeenth Century. — The history of America for 

about one liundred years after its discovery by Columbus is 
one of further discoveries, explorations, and occasional attempts 
at settlement. It was not until the seventeenth century that the 
true colonizing spirit developed and settlements were made by 
those who really wished to establish for themselves and their 
descendants permanent homes in the New World. 

23. The Most Successful Nations. — England and France 
were the nations which were most successful in conducting 
these colonizing enterprises. The Spanish, it is true, had 
made the first permanent settlement (St. Augustine, 1565) and 
had triumphed over the French in securing possession of the 
southern part of North America. The Dutch also had 
attempted to develop jSTew Xetherland. The latter, however, 
were soon swallowed up by the greater power of their rivals, 
the English, who needed the Hudson River for both commer- 
cial and military reasons. The main motives of the Spanish — 
love of gold and conquest — were not the foundation on which 
to build prosperous colonies. Absence of worthy motives for 
colonizing, lack of industry and defects of government, pre- 
vented the growth of Spanish power in America, although at 
one time it had looked as if Spain might control the whole 
continent. Spain made a brilliant beginning and then stood 
still, while England and France, who failed at first, were suc- 

15 



16 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

cessfully developing a New England and a New France in the 
New World. 

24. Length of the Colonizing Period. — The colonizing 
period extended over about one hundred and fifty years, dur- 
ing the last half of which the English and French were disput- 
ing for the supremacy in a series of wars in which the English 
colonists finally triumphed (Quebec, 1759). 

II. The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast 

25. Causes of Differences in the Characteristics of the 
Colonies. — In reviewing the history of the thirteen original 
colonies it is important to note certain great differences 
in the characteristics of the settlers and of the colonies 
which they established. While all the colonies were English 
(Delaware, settled by the Swedes, New York and New Jersey 
by the Dutch, were soon afterward acquired by the English), 
and nearly all the people spoke the same language and pro- 
fessed the same religion, yet quite different classes of people, 
actuated by different motives, had settled the country along 
the Atlantic. Differences of soil, climate, products, etc., of 
the regions settled also produced marked contrasts in the gen- 
eral character of the several colonies. The Puritans of New 
England were decidedly different in habits, manners, and cus- 
toms from the slave-holding settlers of Virginia. The Quakers 
and Dutch of the Middle colonies also gave a distinctive char- 
acter to that region. 

26. The Three Zones. — The colonies may be conveniently 
studied in three groups : — 

1. The New England colonies, or northern group. 

2. Colonies of the middle zone. 

3. Virginia and the far South. 

III. The New England Colonies 

27. The Puritans in New England. — The Puritans did not 
believe in all the forms and ceremonies of the Established 
Church of England. Some of them who believed in separat- 



COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 17 

ing entirely from the English church (Separatists), being unable 
to secure the liberty to worship as they pleased, fled to Hol- 
land, where they enjoyed full religious freedom. On account 
of their wanderings, they were afterward known as Pilgrims. 

But though the Pilgrims were willing to exile themselves 
from their native land for the sake of their beliefs, their love 
of country was so strong that they could not content themselves 
in the midst of a foreign, though friendly people, and at the 
risk of their descendants ceasing to be English. Facing great 
difficulties, they determined to secure religious and civil liberty 
on English soil — the soil of the New World, They were 
compelled to live in a rude, primitive way in the new country, 
engage in the arduous labors of reclaiming its wilderness, 
face the rigors of a severe climate, and fight a savage foe — 
the Indians. They endured all this with great fortitude ; led 
simple, fearless, upright lives, and governed themselves well 
and justly, though their laws were harsh and severe. They had 
great respect for learning, and early established schools and 
colleges. They were also deeply religious and worshipped in 
the plain manner that seemed best to them. Yet they refused 
to allow others the religious liberty which they themselves so 
highly prized, but persecuted those who disagreed with them. 
Their banishment of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson 
and their persecution of the Quakers are tlie most notable 
instances of this intolerance. 

The great hardships which the Puritans were willing to 
undergo for the sake of their ideas of right and liberty, their 
courage and determination in overcoming these hardships, and 
their intolerance of opinions and practices different from their 
own, show the strong and peculiar character of the people who 
first settled New England. 

28. Growth and Prosperity. — The soil being poor, the peo- 
ple engaged in shipbuilding and commerce, and many found 
employment in the great cod fisheries. Thousands of emigrants 
from England sought the shores of New England, and the 
colonies grew and prospered. 



18 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

IV. The Middle Colonies 

29. Motives of the Settlers. — Just as the Puritans had 
founded a New England, the Dutch attempted to found a 
New Netherland and the Swedes a New Sweden. The latter 
attempt was short-lived, the settlement being conquered by the 
Dutch and absorbed into New Netherland. The Quakers 
under Fenn and the Catholics under Lord Baltimore settled 
Pennsylvania and Maryland respectively in order to secure 
religious liberty. ' The motives which led to the settlement 
of the Middle. colonies were thus similar in some respects to 
those of the New En glanders. There were such great differ- 
ences, however, in the character both of the people and of the 
country in which they settled, that the Middle colonies were 
quite unlike those of New England. 

30. New Netherland. — The Dutch, after Hudson's discov- 
eries, were attracted to the valley of the Hudson by the 
opportunities for profitable fur-trading with the Indians which 
that region offered. They soon became interested in farming 
also, which they developed by means of the patroon system. 
They were a thrifty, peace-loving people, and with few excep- 
tions allowed full religious liberty to everyone. So many peo- 
ple of different nationalities came to New Amsterdam that it 
became very cosmopolitan, a characteristic which New York 
retains to this day. The people of New Netherland were not 
warlike enough to hold their own against the English ; hence 
their colony became English and continued as prosperous as it 
had been under Dutch rule. Thougli tlie Dutch were conquered, 
the influence of their simple manners and customs is felt to 
the present day, esi)ecially in the valley of tlie Hudson. 

31. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. — New Jersey 
was sold to Quakers and settled by them. This led to the 
founding of Pennsylvania by William Penn as an asylum for 
the per.secuted Quakers and the oppressed of other creeds. 
The tolerant spirit of the Quakers was in marked contrast to 
the narrow religious view.s of the Puritans. Penn called the 



COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 19 

colony his " Holy Experiment," and endeavored to base it upon 
the Golden Rule, which he rightfully thought the red man 
would be able to understand and appreciate. The success of 
the undertaking, and especiall}^ the friendly relations which 
he established and maintained with the Indians, were due to 
Penn's wisdom and his great ability as a governor. He after- 
ward became proprietor of Delaware. 

32. Lord Baltimore and Maryland. — Lord Baltimore, another 
wise and good proprietor, founded in Maryland a colony for 
persecuted Catholics. More religious freedom was allowed 
here than in any other colony. It accordingly became a refuge 
not only for Catholics, but for the oppressed of all creeds. 
This religious liberty prevailed however only while Lord Balti- 
more was governor. His enemies, unfortunately, triumphed 
over him for a time, and Catholic worship was prohibited until 
Lord Baltimore regained the power which he had employed 
in such a liberal spirit. 

33. Growth and Prosperity of the Middle Colonies. — New 
York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore became important commer- 
cial centres; but the people of the Middle colonies generally 
engaged in farming to a much greater extent than did those 
of New England. Maryland, however, with its large planta- 
tions and few towns, bore a greater resemblance to the Vir- 
ginia colony than it did to those of the middle and northern 
sections. 

The IMiddle colonies maintained much more friendly rela- 
tions with the Indians than did those of New England. The 
most remarkable example of this was the success of Penn in 
securing the friendship of the Indians for the peaceable 
Quakers. The Dutch and Quakers of this whole section were 
kindly, simple-minded people. They lived plainly and had 
quaint customs, but they were not harsh and severe like the 
Puritans. Both Penn and Lord Baltimore endeavored to rule 
in a broad, liberal spirit, and granted to the colonists a degree 
of civil and religious liberty unknown to the other colonies, 
and indeed to all the rest of the world. 



20 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



V. The Southern Colonies 

34. Virginia. — The Virginia colony was the first permanent 
English settlement in the New World. Raleigh had spent 
nearly $1,000,000 in attempts " to plant an English nation in 
America," which, though unsuccessful, kept up an interest in 
the New World and set an example for later and- more per- 
manent settlements. It happened about 1600 that hiuidreds 
of Englishmen were out of emjdoyment. Emigration was sug- 
gested as a remedy, and Virginia was declared to be " a door 
which God had opened for England." Hence companies were 
formed and chartered l)y the king (London and Plymouth 
companies). The settlement of Jamestown (1607) was the 
result of the efforts of the London Company. 

35. Character of Settlers and Early Difficulties. — jNIany 
of the first emigrants were " gentlemen "' unused to work, 
and filled with the idea of getting rich (juickly and returning 
to England. They were not persevering and industrious like 
the northern colonists, but were fond of gayety and luxurious 
living. The original plan of colonial life (comnmnism) tended 
to encourage them in their idleness and to discourage the few 
who were industrious. Trouble with the Indians added to 
their difficulties, and it is no wonder that the settlement 
almost failed. The energy of John Smith saved it from 
extinction. 

36. Colony firmly Established. — The arrival of men and 
supjtlies and the wise though harsh rule of Governor Dale 
who abolished the foolish communistic plan and forced each 
man to work for his own living, gave the colony a new lease 
of life. The discovery of the value of tobacco firmly estab- 
lished the colony. It also led to far-reaching results by the 
encouragement which it gave to negro slavery. 

37. The Carolinas and Georgia. — The other Southern colonies 
were settled niucli later and by various peoples. French Hugue- 
nots, Germans, and Scotch Highlanders joined the original 
English settlers. In the Carolinas the English settlers were 



COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 21 

emigrants from England, Virginia, and Barbados who had 
become dissatisfied with life in these places. In Georgia they 
were poor people who had been released fvom debtors' prisons 
in England through the philanthropy of Oglethorpe. The cul- 
tivation of rice and indigo was almost as important for this 
region as tobacco had been for Virginia. 

38. Character and Mode of Life. — The Southern colonists 
lacked both the simplicity of character and the patient in- 
dustry which characterized the Puritans of New England and 
the Dutch and Quakers of the Middle colonies. They were 
not so deeply religious and were not troubled by religious 
controversies to the same extent as were the people of some 
of the other colonies. 

Plantation life did not favor the growth of large cities, and 
this, together Avith the institution of slavery, tended to divide 
society into classes, — (a) the wealthy plantation owners, and 
(6) the slaves and poor whites. Labor was looked upon as 
degrading. The aristocratic landowner or gentleman of the 
South thus formed a marked contrast to the thrifty, industri- 
ous farmer and mechanic of the North. 

VI, Government of the Colonies 

39. The Three Forms of Colonial Government. — Though the 
English colonies were all under the control of the same 
mother country, they had three distinct forms of colonial 
government, known as the Charter, the Proprietary, and the 
Royal or Provincial. 

40. Charter Government. — To some of the colonies the king 
granted charters which conferred the power of government 
upon the people. The charters were somewhat similar to our 
present state constitutions. They defined the powers of 
government and secured many valuable rights to the people. 
The people elected their own governor and the members of 
both houses of the legislative assembly. The king had so 
little to do with the government of the charter colonies that 
they really resembled small independent rej^ublics. Massachu- 



22 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



setts, Ehode Island, and Connecticut had the charter form of 
government, although Massachusetts under its second charter 
lost the privilege of electing its own governor. The charters 
of Connecticut and Rhode Island were so liberal that they were 
retained without change as state constitutions until 1818 and 
1842 respectively. 

41. Proprietary Government. — Some of the colonies were 
under the control of a proprietor, to whom the king had 
granted both the land and the power to rule it. The pro- 
prietor either ruled it himself or appointed a governor. He 
also appointed a council ; but the people elected representa- 
tives to the assembly. The powers granted the proprietor 













l-AiMMii^K OF Part of the Royal Deed given to Pknn 

were so great that he was in effect a sort of local prince, and 
the proprietary colony resembled, in its form of government, 
a limited mouaix-hy : limited, because the people elected the 
lower house of the assembly. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and 
Delaware had proprietary forms of government. New York, 
New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia were under the pro- 
prietary form of government for a time. The plan proving 
unsatisfactory^, they later became royal provinces. 

42. Royal or Provincial Government. — In most of the colo- 
nies the king neither granted a charter to the people nor 
conferred the power of government upon a proprietor. The 
king himself appointed a governor as well as the gov- 
ernor's council, although the people were allowed to elect the 
lower house of the assembly. The colonies ruled in this way 
were under the royal or provincial form of government, and 



COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 23 

were called Royal Provinces. At the beginning of the Revo- 
lution, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, the 
Carolinas, and Georgia were royal provinces. 

43. Common Features of these Three Forms. — The three 
forms of colonial government were alike in four important 
respects : — 

1. In each form there were two houses constituting the assem- 

bly or law-making body, and also a governor. This was 
like the government of England. The plan of having 
an executive officer and two houses is exemplified to-day 
in our national, state, and many city governments. In 
the nation we have the President and Congress, consist- 
ing of the Senate and House of Representatives ; in 
each state there is a governor and a legislature, also con- 
sisting of two houses, usually named as are the two 
houses of Congress ; in many cities we have the mayor 
and councils, consisting of two houses, often called alder- 
men and common council. 

2. In each form of colonial government the lower house was 

elected by the people. 

3. In all the colonies the governor had absolute veto power 

upon any act of the legislature, 

4. No colony was permitted to pass any law contrary to the 

laws of England. 

44. Differences. — The colonies differed as to the manner of 
appointment of the governor. In the royal colonies the gov- 
ernor was appointed by the king ; in the proprietary, by the 
proprietor when he himself did not act as governor ; in the 
charter colonies he was elected by the people. In the royal 
colonies the council was appointed by the king ; in the pro- 
prietary, by the proprietor; in the charter the council was 
elected by the people. 

45. Effects upon the Rights of the People. — By the nature 
of their government the provincial colonies were most depend- 
ent on the king and Parliament. The people of these colonies 



24 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

consequently had fewest political rights. The proprietary- 
colonies were dependent on a local ruler, the proprietor. They 
had greater privileges and rights than the provincial colonies, 
though this was due, not to the nature of the government, but 
to the fact that they chanced to have good proprietors. The 
charter colonies were the least dependent on the king and Par- 
liament, and had greatest political freedom. In exercising 
the rights granted them by their charters they learned how to 
govern themselves, and the political institutions which resulted 
were often superior to those of the other colonies. 

46. Special Local Features of Government. — As there were 
great differences in the character and mode of life of the 
colonists of the Northern, Middle, and Southern sections, so 
they developed certain distinct features in local government. 
The most important of these were the Town System and the 
County System of government. 

47. The Town System of New England. — The New Eng- 
land colonies had a system of local government called the 
Town System. It was a pure democracy. The country was 
divided into districts called towns. The government of the 
town was vested in a Town Meeting held once a year, at 
which every male citizen was ex})ected to be present and 
was at liberty to address the meeting and vote on any sub- 
ject that might come up. This was democratic because each 
person was taking part in the government himself, and not by 
a representative. The spirit of independence was kept alive 
by the discussions which arose at these meetings, and the ulti- 
mate revolt of the colonies was due in some measure to the 
uniform opposition which the New England towns displayed to 
the unjust enactments of Parliament. 

48. The County System of Virginia. — Plantation life, and 
the tendency to aristocracy which this life developed, did not 
encourage anything like a town meeting. A body of leading 
men attended to the government of each county. They had 
the power of filling vacancies in their own body, so the people 
had little to do with choosing them. 



COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 25 

Other systems of local government, which resembled in some 
particulars each of the above, and which may therefore be 
called Mixed Township-county Systems, were developed by the 
colonists of the Middle region. 

VII. The French in America 

49. Attempts at Colonization. — While the English were 
firmly establishing themselves along the Atlantic coast from 
Maine to Georgia, the French were making extensive explora- 
tions in Canada and the Mississippi Valley. They were en- 
deavoring to found a great French empire in the New World. 
Their first successful attempt to plant a colony in Canada was 
the founding of Quebec by Champlain in 1608, a year after the 
settlement of Jamestown by the English. 

50. Work of the Missionaries. — The French explorations 
and settlements were not made for commercial and patriotic 
reasons only, but sprang also from the efforts of the Jesuit mis- 
sionaries to convert the Indians to Christianity. The mission- 
aries led lives of great self-sacrifice, bravely penetrating the 
wilderness and enduring fearful hardships. They established 
numerous missions and trading-posts. (See map, page 11.) 
As a result of their labors, the French gained such great influ- 
ence over the Indians of the Northwest that the latter served 
as allies of the French in their wars against the English. 

51. Efforts to establish an Empire. — The French turned 
their attention chiefly to the fisheries and the fur trade with 
the Indians. They were not successful farmers, and as a con- 
sequence failed to develop thriving settlements like those of 
the English colonies. They endeavored, however, to strengthen 
and defend their claim to the vast region which they called New 
France by building a chain of forts from the Great Lakes to 
the mouth of the Mississippi. The strength of the French 
was due to (1) their military training; (2) the despotic form 
of government, vaich assured united action ; (3) their ability 
to control the Indians and secure them for their allies. Their 
main element of weakness consisted in the fewness of their 



26 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

numbers. Their communities did not increase rapidly on 
account of the absence of agricultural interests, the rigorous 
climate of Canada, and a faulty system of government. 

VIII. Establishment of English Supremacy 

52. Origin of the Conflict. — We have seeu how the French 
and English settlers in America came to lay claim to differ- 
ent regions of the continent. France had control of the 
immense regions bordering on the St. Lawrence, the Great 
Lakes, the Mississippi and its tributaries. The work of build- 
ing forts throughout this vast domain was energetically begun 
by La Salle and continued by his successors. It was very evi- 
dent that the French regarded America, not as a temporary 
possession, but rather as the possibility of a future empire, 
which would make France a power in the New World. All 
this time the English colonists had been prospering and living 
contentedly in the narrow strip of land bordering on the 
Atlantic Ocean. The Alleghanies stood as an effective barrier 
to their western migration. It was inevitable, however, that 
a conflict should arise between the French and the English, not 
so much on account of their differences in religion and customs, 
but because of the enmity of the mother countries, France and 
England. It was the long war between these two nations in 
Europe which really first brought the English and French 
colonists into conflict. They were, however, the more ready 
to take up the quarrel of the mother country because of 
their own quarrels over fisheries, fur-trading, and territorial 
boundaries. The question to be decided was " which should 
be the ruling nationality in North America — French or 
English ? " and it required a long series of wars to answer 
it. In these wars the French were generally assisted by the 
Indians, with the exception of the Iroquois of New York, who 
faithfully kept a treaty of friendship with the English and 
assisted them in their battles. 

53. Intercolonial Wars. — It is customary to divide the con- 
flicts which thus took place from 1689 to 1763 into four wars, 



COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 27 

the first three being named after the monarchs then reigning 
in England. It was, however, but one war with long intermis- 
sions. The first three wars made little change in the territorial 
possessions of France and England. The treaties of peace 
generally restored to their original owners xine William's 
places which had been captured. This was War (1689-97), 
not the case with Acadia, however, which Queen Anne's War 

i 1 702-1 3 ) 

remained in possession of the English at the i.. _ ' „, 

^ , ^ . . King George's War 

close of Queen Anne's War, its name being (1744-48), 

changed to Nova Scotia. Perhaps the most French and Indian 
important event of these wars was the taking ^^^ (1754-63). 
of the strongly fortified fortress of Louisburg, on Cape Breton 
Island, by Colonel Pepperrell of Maine with a small force of 
American or " Yankee " soldiers. There were two important 
results of this victory : (1) it stopped the French piracy among 
the fisheries ; (2) it inspired the colonists with confidence. 
The latter was perhaps the greatest effect, and had, in con- 
nection with the additional encouragement given by the French 
and Indian War, far-reaching consequences. 

54. The French and Indian War (1754-63). — The French 
and Indian War was the last of the intercolonial wars. The 
English had been practically inactive while the French had 
been fastening their hold on the entire Mississippi Valley as 
far east as the Alleghanies. Fearing at last, however, that this 
part of the country might be entirely lost to them, the English 
decided to plant a colony near the Ohio River. As all this re- 
gion was claimed by the French, they stoutly resisted the en- 
croachments of the English intruders. To protect their rights, 
they built a new line of forts from Erie to where Pittsburg now 
stands. Governor Dinwiddle of Virginia sent George Wash- 
ington, then a yoiing man of twenty-one, with a message to the 
French commander of one of the new forts ; but as an unsat- 
isfactory answer was received, it became apparent that force 
would be necessary to settle the dispute. 

55. The Important Strategic Points. — The jooints of the 
greatest strategic importance in the conflict were : (1) Fort 



28 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Duquesne, the present site of Pittsburg, which commanded the 
entrance to the Ohio, and hence th'e Mississippi River, and 
was thus the key to the region west of the Alleghanies ; 

(2) Acadia and Louisburg, which protected the French fisheries 
and, on account of their nearness, menaced New England; 

(3) Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which protected the internal 
route to Canada ; (4) Quebec, which was the strongest strategic 
position in North America, having an excellent situation on a 
high bluff overlooking the St. Lawrence, thus being the key to 
Canada. 

56. First Important United Action of the Colonies. — During 
the first three intercolonial wars, the New England colonies, 
and especially Massachusetts, had borne the brunt of the 
fighting, assisted to some extent by New York, New Jersey, 
and Pennsylvania. In the French and Indian War, however, 
the colonies had been drawn into a conflict not because of 
disputes between England and France, but on their own ac- 
count, in order to gain possession of the Ohio Valley. All the 
colonies became interested in this war and acted together for 
the first time. They were advised by the British government 
to unite for the common defence. Delegates were sent to a 
colonial congress at Albany from New Hampshire, Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, 
and Maryland. Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan of union 
which was unsatisfactory, both to England and to the colonies, 
but which was nevertheless very important as being the first 
attempt of a large number of the colonies at union. 

57. Success of the English. — The war was stubbornly con- 
tested by the British soldiers and the colonists on the one 
side, and the French and Indians on the other. After several 
reverses, due partly to the ignorance of the British generals 
in regard to Indian methods of warfare and their unwilling- 
ness to profit by the advice of George Washington and 
other Americans, the English finally succeeded in gaining 
possession of the important points above enumerated. The 
success of the war was due largely to the wisdom and energy of 




CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1755 
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 




CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1763 
AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 

(ACCORDING TO PEACE OF PARIS) 



COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 29 

Sir William Pitt, who, when he came to have charge of affairs 
iu England, sent over many troops to light for the colonists. 

The war was practically ended by the fall of Quebec, " The 
Gibraltar of America," in 1759. The town was bravely defended 
by General Montcalm, but was captured after a siege by a 
daring assault by the British and colonial forces under General 
Wolfe. Both the commanding generals, Wolfe and Montcalm, 
lost their lives in this battle, which has been properly classed 
as one of the decisive battles of the world. It settled once 
for all the qi;estion of supremacy. 

58. The Treaty of Peace (1763). — Shortly after the fall of 
Quebec all Canada succumbed to British rule. In 17G3 the 
treaty of peace was made. It completely changed the political 
map of North America. Florida, which had belonged to Spain, 
was ceded to Great Britain. France gave up New Orleans and 
the vast Louisiana territory to Spain, and ceded Canada to 
Great Britain. All that France retained of her vast possessions 
in North America were a few small islands. The English 
possessions thus included the entire eastern part of North 
America, from the Arctic Ocean to Florida, and westward to 
the JNIississippi. 

59. Effects of the French and Indian War. — Next to the 
establishment of English supremacy, the most far-reaching 
result of the French and Indian War was the fostering of 
the spirit of union among the English colonists. Fighting 
shoulder to shoulder during the war, they had learned to know 
and respect each other. The sectional feeling and animosity 
which tended to keep the colonists apart had been partially 
wiped out. The way was prepared for the real union which 
was to come, — a union of independence Avhich was to cement 
the hitherto rival colonies into a brotherhood, to be known to 
the world as the United States of America. The French and 
Indian War in another way indirectly led to the independence 
of the American colonies, as it was the adoption by England 
shortly after of a new colonial policy that prompted their first 
acts of resistance. 



CHAPTER III 
THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 

Causes of the War. — 60. Interference with Commerce. 61. Taxation 
without Representation. 62. British Army in America. 63, Eirst 
Continental Congress. 

Principal Events of the War. — First Period (1775-76, princi- 
pally in New England and Canada). 64. Operations about Boston. 
65. Second Continental Congress. 66. Bunker Hill and the Evacua- 
tion of Boston. 67. Expedition to Canada. 68. Growth of the Idea 
of Independence. 69 The Declaration of Independence. 

Second Period (1776-78, principally in the Middle States). 70. Oper- 
ations around New York and New Jersey. 71. Capture of Philadel- 
phia : Valley Forge. 72. Burgoyne Surrenders : Aid of France 
Secured. 

Third Period (1778-81, principally in the Southern States). 73. The 
Surrender of Cornwallis : End of the War. 74. The Treaty of Peace. 



SO 



CHAPTER III 

THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 

I. Causes of the War 

60. Interference with Commerce. — England regarded her 
colonies merely as sources of gain. Dutch vessels had been 
carrying the commerce of America to a great extent, and it was 
determined that England should acquire a monopoly of this 
profitable trade. As early as 1651 the Parliament of England 
had begun to pass certain laws known as Navigation Acts, 
which bore very heavily on American trade. The Navigation 
Acts provided that only English or colonial vessels might 
carry products to the colonies, and that all goods imported by 
the colonists must come from some English port. In order to 
evade these discriminating laws, smuggling was resorted to. 
The laws were poorly enforced, the revenue officers them- 
selves being sometimes guilty of smuggling. After the French 
and Indian War, however, when George III ascended the 
throne, it was decided that these navigation laws should be 
rigidly enforced. Writs of Assistance were issued, giving cus- 
toms officers the right to enter any man's house and search for 
smuggled goods. The enforcement of the Navigation Acts 
bore most heavily upon the New England colonies, which had 
been carrying on a profitable trade with the Spanish and French 
AVest Indies. The activity of the customs-house officers served 
to embitter the colonists, and did much to arouse the spirit 
of opposition to British rule, which afterward became the 
demand for independence. 

61. Taxation without Representation. — Perhaps a still more 
fruitful source of bad feeling was the attempt to raise money 

31 



32 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

by levying taxes on the Americans without their consent. The 
colonists were not represented in Parliament, and they 
believed that their rights as English subjects were assailed 
by being thus taxed. The passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, 
requiring the colonists to use stamps on all important docu- 
ments, pamphlets, and newspapers, was greeted with a storm of 
protest and indignation. The reason given for the passage 
of the act was that the Americans should help pay for the 
support of a British standing army in America. The colonists 
contended, however, that no standing army was necessary, 
as the war was not likely to be renewed. They also vigor- 
ously opposed the idea of a standing army, feeling that it 
would be a menace to the degree of self-government they 
already enjoyed. Patrick Henry, the famous orator of Vir- 
ginia, voiced the sentiments of the people and aroused them 
to a great pitch of excitement by his tierv 
eloquence and — as the British called them 
— treasonable utterances. James Otis of 
^Massachusetts was particularly emphatic 
iu denouncing the injustice of Great Brit- 
ain's treatment of the colonies, and gave 
expression to the ideas of the colonists in 
the assertion that "Taxation without repre- 
sentation is tA-ranuy."' Samuel Adams, the 
li^^ ^ 'Tatherof the Revolution,"' also denounced 
Stamp used in 1765 ^^^ ^^^ ^'^ strong terms. The Stamp Act 
was repealed in 1766, but England still 
claimed the right to tax the colonists. 

In 1767 another tax was ordered, requiring a duty to be paid 
on all imported glass, paper, paints, and tea. This tax likewise 
met with stubborn resistance, and Parliament decided to 
remove all the taxes except a very low tax on tea. But the 
colonists were now opposed to the principle of taxation without 
representation, and the shiploads of tea sent over to America 
were either sent back or destroyed. In Boston, the contents of 
the vessel were thrown overboard (Boston Tea Party). 




THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 



33 




OPPOSITE THIS SPOT 
VA5 SHED THE riRST BLOOD 

or THE 

AAERICAN REVOLUTION 

AARCH 5" 1770 



62. British Army in America. — The idea of maintaining a 
British standing army in America was bitterly opposed by the 
colonists. The support of the British soldiery was one of the 
reasons assigned for the obnoxious taxes. The acts of opposi- 
tion on the part of the colonists enraged the King and Parlia- 
ment of England, and a law was passed closing the port of 
Boston until reparation should be made for the destruction of 
the tea, and proper respect shown to the king. Moreover, the 
people of Massachusetts were no longer to be allowed to govern 
tliemselves, but were to be under the military rule of General 
Gage, who was ordered to 
Boston with several regi- 
ments of soldiers. There 
were frequent quarrels be- 
tween these soldiers and 
inhabitants of Boston. In 
one of these conflicts (1770) 
the British soldiers fired 
upon a mob which had been 
insulting them, and five per- 
sons were killed and four 
dangerously wounded. This 
was known as the Boston 
Massacre and served to add fuel to the rage of the colonies. 
In 1772 the Gaspee, a British war vessel which had run aground 
in Xarragansett Bay, was captured and burned by residents of 
Providence. Some historians regard this affair as the real 
beginning of the Revolution. 

63. The First Continental Congress. — The First Continental 
Congress met in Philadelphia in 1774, and petitioned Eng- 
land for a redress of grievances. All the colonies except 
Georgia were represented in this congress. There was no 
talk of independence j^et. England, however, gave a deaf 
ear to the calm, respectful, yet firm demands of the American 
colonies. 



Tablet commemorating the Boston 

Massacre 

In State Street, Boston 



34 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

II. Principal Events of the War 

First Period — 1775-76 

prixcipally in new exglaxd and canada 

64. Operations about Boston. — As the most violent opposi- 
tion to England came from ^Massachusetts, and troops had 
been sent over to force these colonists into submission, it 
was natural that the first military operations of the war 
should occur there. The Boston Massacre and the destruc 
tion of the Gaspee were but a preface. The first real fighting 
occurred April 19, 1775, when the British made an attempt to 
destroy some military stores at Concord, about twenty miles 
from Boston. On the way they stopped at Lexington to arrest 
the "arch rebels/' Samuel Adams and John Hancock. A con- 
flict occurred here between the British soldiers and some 
" minute men," i.e. men ready to fight at a minute's notice, 
and seven Americans were killed. At Concord the British 
destroyed the military stores. Meanwhile the farmers and 
other inhabitants had been aroused, and many of the British 
were killed on their retreat to Lexington and thence to Boston. 

65. Second Continental Congress. — In the meantime the Sec- 
ond Continental Congress hael met at Philadelphia (May 10, 
1775). While it still recognized George III as the rightful 
sovereign of the colonies, it prepared for the war which had 
already begun. ]\Ieasures were also taken to defray the ex- 
penses of the wai-, and George Washington was appointed 
comniandfr-in-chicf of the Continental army. 

66. Bunker Hill and the Evacuation of Boston. — The first 
really important battle of the war, known as the battle of 
Bunker Hill, resulted from an attempt by the British to 
dislodge the American army from a strong position they had 
taken on a hill overlooking Boston. The Americans were 
under command of Prescott, Putnam, and Warren, and 
numbered about fifteen hundred. The British were twice 
repulsed ; but the third time, owing to lack of ammunition 
and the disparity of numbers, the Americans were driven 



Cherry Talleyi 

•V f- CATSKILL l^ IM 




REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION 
NORTHERN AND MIDDLE STATE& 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 



35 



back. The loss was heavy on both sides ; but though com- 
pelled to retreat, the colonists had won a moral victory, as 
their bravery and determination 
to fight for their rights had been 
definitely proved. 

During the winter of 1775-76 
the siege of Boston was con- 
tinued by the American forces 
under Washington. In jNIarch, 
1776, Washington succeeded in 
planting his cannon in such 
favorable positions that the 
English were forced to with- 
draw, leaving Boston and sail- 
ing to Canada. The American 
army then entered the city of 
Boston, which the British never 
recaptured; 

67. Expedition to Canada. — 
While these operations around 
Boston were in progress, Gen- 
erals Montgomery and Arnold 

made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada. Montgomery 
took Montreal, and was later joined by Arnold with a wretched 
army, .sadly diminished by disease and desertion during their 
heroic march through the wilderness of Maine. The attack 
on Quebec was a dismal failure; Montgomery was killed, 
Arnold badly wounded. Shortly after, all the Americans were 
driven out of Canada. 

68. Growth of the Idea of Independence. — All this time 
the Americans had been fighting, not for independence, but 
merely for their rights as British subjects. The conduct 
of England, however, was hastening the time when nothing 
short of independence would satisfy them. In reply to the 
colonists' plea for justice and redress of grievances, King 
George called for troops to put down the rebellion. Early in 




Bunker Hill Monument 



36 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

1776 a pamphlet was published by Thomas Paine, a noted 
free-thinker, in which it was boldly asserted that the time had 
come when the Americans must fight for their independence. 
The pamphlet was entitled '' Common Sense." It had an im- 
mense sale, and served to excite the people, who saw in it the 
frank expression of what they themselves really thought, but 
were afraid to express. The last straw was the news that 
England ha'd hired Hessian soldiers to fight the Americans. 

69. The Declaration of Independence. — In June, 1776, a 
resolution was offered in the Continental Congress by Richard 

C< / ■ !>-< r I I ^ w r ..^SL ^ ^ .r-^^ ^ ■,f>rtj . . 

to The e-p-i^^Urn^ ^ -»Tww^<X^fO x^^t*4^ f^ukJt /^ j'kr^ 4M.JU^rt. ^^ < 



REi^ucED Facsimile of the First Two Paragraphs of the 
Declaration of Independence 

Henry Lee of Virginia, " Resolved that these united colonies are, 
and of right ougJit to be, free and independent states." The reso- 
lution was seconded by John Adams of jNfassachusetts, and a 
committee was appointed to draw up a Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. The Declaration was written by Thomas Jefferson and 
signed by John Hancock. })resident of the Congress, and other 
members on July 4, 1776. Thus the United States of America 
had its beginning. 




THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 37 

Secoxd Period — 1776-78 
principally in" the middle states 

70. Operations around New York and New Jersey. — The 

English now tried to gain possession of the Hudson, so 
as to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. 
The Americans had no fleet ; hence if the English had been 
successful in carrying out their plan, a great advantage would 
have been gained. They succeeded, although with considerable 
opposition from Washington, in gaining possession of the city 
of New York, the Americans making a masterly retreat under 
cover of night. AYashington now retreated across New Jersey, 
closely followed by the British under Cornwallis. At Trenton 
he crossed the DelaAvare, having prevented the enemy from fol- 
lowing him by seizing all the boats on that part of the river. 
On Christmas night (1776), Washington with a force of two 
thousand men recrossed the Delaware and surprised the Hes- 
sians, taking a thousand prisoners and a large amount of 
ammunition. This unexpected stroke served to revive the 
drooping spirits of the American soldiers, who were by this 
time thoroughly miserable and disheartened. Their families 
were destitute, and the paper money of the Continental Con- 
gress, with which they were paid, had practically no purchas- 
ing power. It is hard to say what dire consequences might not 
have arisen had not Robert Morris, a prominent financier of 
Philadelphia, come to Washington's assistance with a loan of 
$50,000 in coin. It saved the army at a most critical period. 
Shortly after this Washington again outwitted Cornwallis 
and gained an important victory at Princeton, inspiring the 
army with his personal bravery. The American army then took 
a strong position in the hills about Morristown, from which 
Cornwallis feared to attemjit to dislodge them. 

71. Capture of Philadelphia : Valley Forge. — Washington 
having prevented the British from taking Philadelphia by land, 
Howe returned to New York and fitted out a naval expedition 
against the city, then the capital of the United States. He 



38 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

sailed up the Chesapeake so as to avoid the fortifications on 
the Delaware, and marched northward. He met and defeated 
Washington at Brandywine Creek, and thus gained possession 
of Philadelphia. Washington, after an unsuccessful attack on 
the British at Germantown, fell back with his army to Valley 
Forge, where they spent the Avinter of 1777-78. It was the 
darkest winter of the war, the sufferings of the army being ter- 
rible. Yet the important work of organizing and drilling the 
army went on. This was largely due to the efforts of Baron Steu- 
ben, a Prussian military engineer, who had come to this country 
to assist the Americans in their struggle for independence. 

72. Burgoyne Surrenders: Aid of France Secured. — While 
Howe and Cornwallis had been carrying on their operations in 
southern New York, Xew Jersey, and Pennsylania, an expedi- 
tion had been started under General Burgoyne from the iS^orth. 
He was to march down from Canada and effect a junction 
with the forces under General Howe, thus securing control of 
the Hudson and dividing the colonies in two. The expedition, 
however, was a complete failure. Washington delayed Howe, 
while Schuyler and Arnold, helped by Daniel Morgan's sharp- 
shooters and the New England farmers, succeeded in so har- 
assing Burgoyne and weakening his army, that the British 
were defeated at the battle of Bennington, and later at Saratoga. 
General Burgoyne, with his entire army of about six thousand 
men, was forced to surrender (October 17, 1777). This was a 
severe blow to the British, as it completely spoiled HoAve's 
plans, and helped the United States to secure the aid of France. 
On this latter account it may be considered the greatest victory 
of the war, and it is classed among the decisive battles of the 
world. The next year, 1778, Benjamin Franklin, our minister to 
France, received a pledge from the king of France, who promised 
to send money, ships, and men. France also acknowledged our 
independence. As the British now had France to contend Avith, 
Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, feared that a French fleet 
might prevent his escape from Philadelphia. He therefore 
abandoned that city and marched across New Jersey to New 




Qirrr of msxzcJ^ 



REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION 
SOUTHERN STATES 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 39 

York, where most of the British forces were now located. The 
American forces in New Jersey under Washington watched 
their movements closely. 

Third Period — 1778-81 
principally in the southern states 

73. The Surrender of Cornwallis: End of the War. — The 

British now decided to conquer the South, so that even if they 
should lose the war, they might at least retain this portion of 
their former possessions. Their plan was to begin at Georgia 
and conquer northward. They were at first entirely success- 
ful, gaining possession of Georgia and South Carolina. But 
the persistent guerilla warfare of Marion and Sumter, together 
with the skilful manoeuvres of General Greene who was, next to 
Washington, the ablest American general of the Revolution, 
finally (1781) forced Cornwallis into Yorktown, Virginia, and 
siiut up the rest of the British in Charleston, South Carolina. 
Lafayette, a young French nobleman who had come to this 
country, also rendered valuable assistance during this campaign. 
While Cornwallis was at Yorktown, a rrench fleet arrived, 
blocking up the Chesapeake and preventing his escape. Wash- 
ington seized the opportunity, and leading General Clinton, the 
commander of the British troops in New York, to believe that 
he Avas preparing to attack him, marched rapidly down to the 
head of Chesapeake Bay, and proceeded thence by vessels 
to Yorktown. It was the liberality and patriotism of Robert 
Morris which enabled Washington to accomplish this. It is 
said that the Philadelphia financier contributed over a million 
dollars at this time. Cornwallis saw that with the combined 
forces of America and France against him, resistance would 
be useless. He accordingly surrendered, October 19, 1781. 

74. The Treaty of Peace. — In 1783 a treaty of peace was con- 
cluded at Paris. The independence of the United States was 
acknowledged, with the following territorial boundaries : north 
by Canada, west by the Mississippi River, south by Florida, 
which was transferred to Spain. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 

Consolidation of Colonies. — 75. Causes of Lack of Union among the 
Colonies, 7G. CiicumHtances favoring Union. 77. Union of Adjacent 
Towns and Colonies. 

Early Plans for General Union. — 78. Plans suggested by Penn and 
by Franlvlin. 70. Influence of these Plans. 80. Union against Great 
Britain. 

Steps leading to the Constitution. — 81. The Stamp Act Congress. 
82. The First Continental Congress. 83. The Second Continental 
Congress. 84. The Declaration of Independence. 

The Articles of Confederation. — 85. Difficulties of carrying on the 
Revolution. 8G. The Articles of Confederation. 87, Principal Fea- 
tures of the Articles. 88. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. 
89. Useful Functions performed by the Articles. 90, State of the 
Country at the End of the War. 

Formation of the Constitution. — 91, Constitutional Convention, 
92, Different Plans Submitted. 9:L Most Important Compromise 
Effected, 94. The Constitution Adopted. 95. Leading Members. 



40 



CHAPTER IV 

THE ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 



STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE 
UNITED STATES 

CONSOLIDATION OF COLONIES 

1639. Hartford, Weathersfield, and Windsor unite to form Connecticut. 

Towns on Long Island Sound form New Haven Colony, 
1643. The New England Confederacy formed. 

1662. Connecticut and New Haven form one colony of Connecticut. 
1691. Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth unite. 

EARLY PLANS FOR GENERAL UNION 

1697. Penn proposes a Plan of Union. 

1754. Albany Congress and Franklin's Plan of Union. 

UNION AGAINST GREAT BRITAIN 

1765. Stamp Act Congress. 
1774. First Continental Congress. 
1775-81. Second Continental Congress. 
1776. Declaration of Independence. 

EXPERIMENT AND CHANGE 

1781. Articles of Confederation. 

1787. Constitutional Convention. 

1789. New Government goes into Operation. 



I. Consolidation of Colonies 

75. Causes of Lack of Union among the Colonies. — At first 
there was little if any desire for union among the colonies. 
They were scattered along the Atlantic coast, separated from 
each other by great distances. The dangers and difldculties of 

41 



42 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

travel and communication prevented them from thoroughl}' 
understanding and sympathizing with each other. Unimpor- 
tant differences in character, mode of life or government were 
sometimes sufficient to retard the growth of friendly feeling. 
Disputes in regard to boundaries and matters of trade, as well 
as jealousy of each other's prosperity, frequently induced a 
spirit of rivalry which strengthened the colonial feeling, while 
it tended to prevent development of national sentiment. 

76. Circumstances favoring- Union. — Nevertheless, there 
were certain natural bonds of union that were more important 
than the differences between the colonists. The colonists were 
mainly of English birth or descent, and spoke the same language. 
They had very many laws and customs similar to those of the 
mother country. Though the colonial forms of government 
differed from each other in some important respects, yet they 
all bore a strong general resemblance to the government of 
England. In addition to these circumstances, which naturally 
favored union, the colonists had to face certain common dangers 
and enemies (the French and Indians). Thus they were early 
taught the lesson that " in union there is strength." They 
profited by this lesson when the liberties which they had 
learned to enjoy in the New World were so seriously threat- 
ened by England's policy. The growth of the idea of union 
was, however, very gradual. The formation of a really stable 
and efficient national government did not take place until 1789, 
six years after the close of the Revolutionary War, and thirteen 
years after the Declaration of Independence. 

77. Union of Adjacent Towns and Colonies. — The early his- 
tory of the colonies furnished examples of the value of union 
between separate settlements and colonies. In New England, 
e.g., we find towns and groups of towns uniting to form a single 
colony, as in Connecticut and Massachusetts. In the New 
England confederacy we have an example of the union of sev- 
eral colonies. This confederacy was chiefly for the purpose of 
protection against the Dutch and Indians, and lasted about 
forty years. 



ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 43 

II. Early Plans for General Union 

78. Plans suggested by Peiin and by Franklin. — Some of 
the wisest and greatest men of colonial times saw the value 
of a general colonial union, and on more than one occasion 
plans for such a union were earnestly discussed. As early as 
1697, "William Penn proposed a plan which included a general 
colonial congress, to be composed of two delegates from each 
colony. He also suggested a wise scheme of taxation, which 
embodied the essential principles in defence of which the Revo- 
lutionary War was fought eighty years later. 

A colonial congress which met at Albany, in the year 1754, to 
treat with the Indians, approved a plan of union drawn up by 
Benjamin Franklin. It provided for a colonial congress, ap- 
pointed by the colonial assemblies, and a president-general, 
appointed by the king. The plan was rejected by the colonists, 
who thought it gave too much power to the king. It was also 
unsatisfactory to the mother country, because the English 
thought it gave the colonies too great a measure of independence. 

79. Influence of these Plans. — No attempt was made to put 
either of these plans into operation. But though tliey had 
no immediate practical result, yet they prepared the way for 
other and more successful plans. There can be but little 
doubt that the common interests and common dangers of the 
colonists would have led ultimately to the formation of a gen- 
eral colonial government, modelled in some sort after the Al- 
bany plan, even if other events had not hastened the union of 
the colonies. 

80. Union against Great Britain. — The intercolonial wars 
had had the effect of pi-oducing a greater feeling of friendli- 
ness among the colonists, and had proved that they could 
unite when necessary. It had also shown the benefits to be 
derived from concerted action. It was the foolish colonial 
policy of Great Britain that hastened the formation of that 
union toward which the colonies were already slowly but 
inevitably drifting. At first there was little thought of com- 



44 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

'plete independence. The meetings that were held were for 
the purpose of adopting measures that would secure the lib- 
erties of the colonists, and at the same time establish harmo- 
nious relations with the mother country. It soon became 
evident, however, that absolute separation from England was 
necessary, and the Declaration of Independence was passed by 
the Continental Congress. The necessity of carrying the war 
to a successful conclusion, and the difficulty of dealing prop- 
erly with questions that arose after independence had been 
gained, forced the problem of a general government upon the 
people. Their solution of this problem finally took the form 
of the present Constitution of the United States. 

III. Steps leading to the Constitution 

81. The Stamp Act Congress. — A congress of delegates 
from nine different colonies was held in New York, October, 
1765, to resist the enforcement of the Stamp Act. It made a 
vigorous protest against the English policy, and sent remon- 
strances to the king and Parliament. It had no great imme- 
diate influence, but it tended to unite the colonies and to 
prepare the way for future congresses. 

82. The First Continental Congress (1774). — This Congress 
was composed of delegates from all the colonies except Geor- 
gia. It met in Philadelphia from September 5 to October 26, 
1774. 

IMPORTANT WORK OF THIS CONGRESS 

1. It issued a Declaration of Rights with addresses to the 

king and people of England, demanding the right to 
levy all taxes and make all laws in the colonial legisla- 
tive assemblies. 

2. It voted that obedience was not due to any of the recent 

acts of Parliament. 

3. It recommended the suspension of all commercial inter- 

course Avith Great Britain unless the grievances of the 
colonies should be redressed. 



ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 45 

4. It sustained Massachusetts in her resistance, and issued a 

protest against standing armies being kept in the coun- 
try without the consent of the people. 

5. It recommended the hohling of another Congress tlie next 

year. 

83. The Second Continental Congress (1775). — Shortly after 
the beginning of the Kevolution the Second Continental Con- 
gress met in Philadelphia, May 10, 1775. This Congress con- 
tinued in session (with occasional adjournments) until the 
adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. From that 
time until the Constitution went into effect in 1789 the United 
States was governed by the Congress of the Confederation. 

MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 

1. It assumed control of the military operations of the colo- 

nies and proceeded to raise the " American Continental 
Army." 

2. It took measures to defray the expenses of the war. 

3. It organized a general post-office. 

4. It suggested that each colony should organize a state gov- 

ernment (eleven colonies did this by framing their first 
state constitutions ; Rhode Island and Connecticut con- 
tinued under their old charters). 

5. It issued the Declaration of Independence. 

84. The Declaration of Independence. — This famous Declara- 
tion, adopted July 4, 177G, definitely marked the birth of the 
American nation. Its purpose was to proclaim formally to 
the world the independence of the colonies that they might be 
regarded as a nation waging war with Great Britain, and not 
merely as her rebellious subjects. We may briefly outline its 
contents as follows : — 

1. Preamble. 

2. A statement of the rights of men. 

3. The reason for establishing governments and a statement 

of the circumstances under which they may be changed. 



46 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

4. A statement of the tyrannical acts of the king. 

5. An account of the colonists' effort to obtain redress. 

6. The declaration, " that these United Colonies are, and of 

Right ought to be, Free and Independent States; that 
they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British 
Crown ; and that all political connection between them 
and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, 
totally dissolved." 

IV. The Articles of Confederation 

85. DiflSculties of carrying on the Revolution. — The colo- 
nies met many difficulties in carrying on the Revolution, owing 
to the absence of a strong union or general government of 
the states. War time, more than any other, needs a strong 
government with power to take charge of everything and abil- 
ity strictly to enforce its orders. The colonies had no such 
strong general government. Their Congress took charge of 
affairs as best it could, but it could merely advise measures, 
having very little power to enforce them. Out of the neces- 
sities of the case grew the plan known as the Articles of 
Confederation. 

86. The Articles of Confederation. — At the same time that 
the committee was appointed to prepare the Declaration of In- 
dependence, another committee was chosen to draft "The 
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union." Congress, 
after much discussion, adopted the Articles, 1777, and imme- 
diately sent them to the states to be approved and ratified. 
The new government constituted by these Articles was not to 
go into operation until the consent of evei-y state should be 
obtained. As it was almost five years before all the states rati- 
fied them. Congress did not assemble under the Articles of 
Confederation until 1781. 

Meanwhile the Revolution continued, and the states, held 
together by their common danger, but having no written 
bond of union, were loosely governed by the Continental 
Congress. 



ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 47 

87. Principal Features of the Articles of Confederation. — 

1. The Confederation was declared to be a firm league of 

friendship between the several states. 

2. Congress consisted of but one house, to be composed of not less 

than two, nor more than seven delegates from each state. 

3. Each state had but one vote in the Congress. 

4. No provision was made for a president, but executive 

power was vested in a " Committee of the States," which 
consisted of one delegate from each state. 

5. There was no national judiciary. 

G. All matters pertaining to war, finances, intercourse with 
other nations, disputes between the states, were to be 
under the control of Congress, but no power was given 
to Congress to enforce these rights. 

7. The Articles could not be amended without the consent of 
all the states. 

88. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. — The Articles 
of Confederation never proved satisfactory as a plan of union 
or constitution for the United States. Under them the real 
powers of Congress were few. Congress could not punish 
offenders against its own laws, could not compel the raising of 
a Federal army, the collection of Federal taxes, the regulation 
of duties on imports, obedience to its own decrees, etc. 

89. The Useful Functions performed by the Articles. — 
Although the Articles were so imperfect, yet they were cer- 
tainly better than no constitution at all. They accustomed 
the states to Federal government, and their very defects 
showed the necessity of and led up to "a more perfect 
union." For it was the attempt to revise and improve these 
Articles of Confederation which led to the adoption of the 
present Constitution of the United States. 

90. State of the Country at the End of the War. — The defects 
of the Articles of (Confederation became more and more glar- 
ing as time went on. The states quarrelled over boundaries 
and commercial regulations. Several states issued paper 



48 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



money, and financial confusion and distress increased. Con- 
gress Avas powerless to correct these evils, and it fell into 
general disrepute as weak and inefficient. There was serious 
danger of general disunion or disruption of the Confederation, 
or that England might reconquer piecemeal the nation, which 
she had been unable to conquer as a whole. 



' i^^^^ 



V. Formation of the Constitution 

91. Constitutional Convention. — The situation finally became 
so bad that a general convention of the states, for the purpose 

of revising the Articles of Con- 
federation, was recommended by 
Congress. The convention met, 
May 14, 1787, at the State House 
in Philadelphia, and continued in 
session until September 17, 1787. 
Washington was unanimously 
elected President. There were 
great differences of opinion 
among the members. The most 
important question was that of 
representation in Congress. The 
members from the small states 
favored equal representation of 
states in Congress, those from 
the larger states contended for a proportional representation, 
based upon the population of the several states. Slavery was 
another troublesome question to deal with. 

92. Different Plans Submitted. — Many plans were suggested 
the most important being : — 

(a) The New Jersey Plan. — This was the plan of the 
delegates from the small states. It proposed a mere revision 
of the Articles of Confederation, which should retain the one- 
house Congress, but provide for an executive officer and a 
judiciary. 




George Washington 



ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 49 

(6) The Vikginia Plan. — This was the plan favored by 
the large states. It proposed to replace the Articles of Cou- 
federation by an entirely new constitution. It was set forth 
in a series of resolutions which favored proportional represen- 
tation in both houses of Congress, an executive chosen by both 
houses, and a judiciary chosen by the Senate. 

All during the summer months these plans were debated 
by the convention. The disagreements were many and at 
times became very bitter. It frequently seemed as if the 
attempt to devise a satisfactory scheme of government would 
end in total failure. George Washington, who was the leading 
spirit in calling together the convention, presided ably over 
its stormy sessions. Benjamin Franklin's great common sense 
was of the first importance in bringing about compromises 
without which the Constitution could not have been adopted. 

93. The Most Important Compromises Effected. — The most 
difficult question before the convention was that of represen- 
tation. The delegates from the large states contended that 
representation in Congress should be according to population. 
This was opposed by the small states, who feared that the 
plan would confer dangerous powers upon the most populous 
states. They contended that the new government should be a 
" federation of states," in which each state should have equal 
representation. This dispiite was finally compromised by pro- 
viding for a Congress of two houses, the large states conceding 
equality in the Senate while the small states conceded propor- 
tional representation in the House of Representatives. 

The question of slavery occasioned bitter disputes between 
the Northern and Southern states. The delegates from the 
Northern states, where there were but few slaves, contended 
that the slaves should not be counted in the enumeration of 
the population on which representation was to be based. The 
Southern states held that they should be included in this enu- 
meration. The matter was finally settled by a compromise 
according to which three-fifths of the slaves should be counted. 
The Northern and Southern states were also divided in regard 



50 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



to tlie importation of slaves. It was finally agreed that the 
slave trade should not be interfered with prior to 1808. 

94. The Constitution Adopted. — The Constitution was finally 
completed and adopted by the convention, September 17, 1787. 
It was then submitted to Congress, which sent it to the differ- 
ent states to be ratified. It was to go into effect when ratified 
by nine states. It was ratified — 

1787 — by Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. 

1788 — by Georgia, Connecticut, JNEassachusetts, South 

Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, 
and Maryland. 

1789 — by North Carolina. 

1790 — by Rhode Island. 

95. Leading Members of the Constitutional Convention. — 
Alexander Hamilton, although he strongly opposed in the 

convention some of the fea- 
tures of the new Constitution, 
perhaps did more than any one 
else to briug about its ratifica- 
tion. Together with James 
Madison and John Jay he 
wrote the essays published as 
The Federalist, which did much 
to convince the people of the 
wisdom of adopting the new 
Constitution. Madison liad 
taken a leading part in fram- 
ing the Constitution. He took 
notes of the discussions, which 
proved to be a very valuable 
report of the meetings. His concluding paragraph is the 
following characteristic story of Franklin: "Whilst the last 
members were signing, Dr. Franklin, looking toward tlie 
President's chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened 
to be. painted, observed to a few members near him, that 
painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a 




BeNJAMIX FUANKI.IN 



ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 



51 



rising from a setting sun. ' I have/ said he, ' often and often 
in the course of this session, and in the vicissitudes of my 
hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the 
President without being able to tell whether it was rising or 
setting ; but now at length I have the happiness to know that 
it is a rising and not a setting sun.' " 

On April 30, 1789, the new Constitution, with George Wash- 
ington as the first President of the United States, went into 
operation. 




Congress Hall, Philadelphia. 
National Capital, 1790-1800 



CHAPTER V 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 

Domestic Affairs. — 96. Difficulties confronting the New Government. 
07. Political Parties. 98. Finances. 99. The Whisky Rebellion. 
1(10. Oraanization of New Territory. 

Foreign Complications. — 101. Washington's Attitude. 102. Early 
Difficulties with England. 108. France seeks an Alliance : the 
Genet Affair. 104. Trouble with France. 105. "Second War for 
Independence." 100. The Monroe Doctrine. 

Growth and Development. — 107. Promotion of Industries. 108. De- 
velopment of the Nation. 109. Development of Democratic Ideas. 



52 



CHAPTER V 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 
I. Domestic Affairs 

96. Difficulties confronting the New Government.— Under 

the Articles of Confederation, Congress had practically nff 
power to enforce its laws, and the states obeyed or not as they 
chose. Taxes could not be levied by the general government, 
and lack of money, therefore, still further crippled the power 
of Congress. The regulation of commerce was left to the 
states themselves, and this led to jealousies and rivalries. The 
foreign commerce was almost destroyed for want of a uniform 
system. Moreover, the Revolution had left the country deeply 
in debt to France and other countries, to our own soldiers and 
to those who had lent money to the government, while some of 
the states wanted to be helped to pay their debts also. These 
were but some of the difficulties that faced the new government. 
The Constitution, it was hoped, would remedy these evils. The 
preamble set forth its objects as follows : to (1) form a more 
perfect union ; (2) establish justice ; (3) insure domestic tran- 
quillity ; (4) provide for the common defence ; (5) promote the 
general welfare ; (6) secure the blessings of liberty. All of 
these objects were to be attained by provisions of the Consti- 
tution. The people anxiously awaited the improvements which 
it was believed that the new government would effect. But, 
as William Penn had long ago observed, " Good laws need 
good men to interpret and enforce them." Happily for the 
United States of America, good men were not wanting at this 
critical time. 

63 



54 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



97. Political Parties (See Part III, Chap. IX). — At first 
there were two political parties, known as Federalists and 
Anti-Federalists. The former were in favor of a strong na- 
tional government; the latter opposed this view, and wished 
the separate states to retain as much power as possible. They 
feared that a strong central government would make the United 
States too much like a monarchy, and thus endanger the lib- 
erties of the people. The early difference of opinion in regard 

to the power that should be 
granted to the nation and to 
the states continued to be the 
real basis of political parties 
for many years. Washington 
hi mself was a Federalist, bnt he 
showed great tact and wisdom 
when he chose representatives 
of both political views to help 
and advise him in his duties 
as President. Alexander Ham- 
ilton, the most prominent of 
the Federalist party, was made 
Secretary of the Treasury, and 
Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson, the author 

of the Declaration of Independence, and a strong Anti-Federal- 
ist, became Secretary of State. 

98. Finances. — The new nation was deeply in debt, and 
money was also needed to carry on the work of the govern- 
ment. Hamilton therefore proposed a plan for raising revenue, 
according to which a duty or tax was to be laid on all foreign 
shi])S entering American ports, and on many articles of import. 
In 1789 a bill having these ends in view was passed by Con- 
gress, and custom-house officers were appointed, whose business 
it was to collect the duties. Hamilton next seized the op])or- 
tunity to establish our national credit and place the United 
States on a firm financial basis. By sound reasoning and per- 
sistent personal effort, he induced Congress to provide for the 




ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 55 

payment of the national debt. Not only were the debts paid 
which we owed to France and other countries, and to our own 
soldiers, and to the men who had lent us money during the 
Revolution, but the debts of the states were also assumed. The 
Anti-Federalists opposed this, as they thought it was giving too 
much power to the central government. Hamilton is deserving 
of the highest praise for his wisdom and patriotism in establish- 
ing the finances of the new government upon a foundation of 
honesty. The United States Government has never swerved 
from the sound and honest financial policy thus inaugurated. 

99. The Whisky Rebellion. — In 1794 it was decided that 
a tax should be laid on the manufacture of whisky, in order to 
raise more money for the government. Although the Consti- 
tution expressly stated that Congress had the power to lay 
and collect excises, as well as taxes, the people of western 
Pennsylvania determined to resist the tax. They maltreated 
the collectors who were sent, and stubbornly refused to pay, 
taking up arms to oppose what they considered an unjust law. 
Not only does the Constitution give Congress power to make 
laws, but it also requires the President to see that the laws 
are faithfully executed, and makes him commander-in-chief of 
the army. Washington, in the exercise of these constitutional 
powers, sent an army of fifteen thousand men to enforce the law. 
There was no fighting, as the mob dispersed upon the approach of 
the soldiers. Had Washington been a weak or vacillating char- 
acter, the whisky rebellion might have been a very serious mat- 
ter. The nation could not have been well established so long as 
the people believed that they could disobey the laws with impu- 
nity. The Constitution, unlike the Articles of Confederation, 
provided for a President, and gave him powers which had to be 
respected. 

100. Organization of New Territory. — Many states quar- 
relled in regard to the possession of unsettled territory. Dif- 
ferent states laid claim to the same land, e.g. New York and 
New Hampshire both claimed what is now the state of Ver- 
mont. As early as 1779 the Continental Congress urged all 



56 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the states not to sell any of their western lands until the close 
of the war. New York was the first state to surrender its land 
(between the sources of the Great Lakes and the Cumberland 
Mountains) to the general government. Shortly after, Virginia 
gave up its claim to western land, and other states made similar 
cessions. By the middle of 1787 the United States was in 
possession of almost two hundred million acres of public land. 
This territory had to be organized and prepared for statehood. 
The Constitution expressly gives Congress the power to make 
all needful rules and regulations for the government of terri- 
tory. The government of the Northwest territory was pro- 
vided for by the Ordinance of 1787, which became the model 
for territorial government. Congress appointed a governor, 
secretary, and three judges to manage the territory. Slavery 
was prohibited. It was provided that new states should be 
formed in the Northwest territory as soon as the population 
was large enough. The prosperous states of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin have been formed out of this 
region. (See map between pp. 132-133.) 

II. Foreign Complications 

101. Washington's Attitude. — In the establishment of the 
new government not only was it necessary to meet the domes- 
tic difficulties, such as the payment of debts, the raising of 
revenue, enforcement of laws, etc., but there were foreign 
complications as well. The United States was now an inde- 
pendent nation, and the question arose as to what should 
be its attitude toward other nations. Washington with his 
great foresight believed that the new republic was not ready to 
mingle with the affairs of other nations, especially as it was 
far from being strongly established itself. He saw the dangers 
likely to arise from foreign entanglements or alliances, and 
therefore carefully avoided them. 

102. Early Difficulties with England. — In spite of the pro- 
visions of the treaty of peace, British troops were still in 
possession of forts in the neighborhood of Lake Erie. England 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 57 

contended that the United States had not fulfilled all its 
obligations under the treaty, and she refused to withdraw her 
troops. In addition to the irritation thus caused, much feeling 
was aroused, especially in New England, by British interference 
with our commerce. Many leading statesmen were in favor of 
declaring war against England. In spite of the popular outcry, 
Washington made the best peaceable adjustment of the diffi- 
culty that he could. Chief Justice Jay went as special envoy 
to England and secured a treaty (1794) which, while not 
entirely satisfactory, was accepted by Washington as the 
best that could be had. The forts were given up, our honor 
was maintained, and a war was averted. Washington was 
violently attacked for agreeing to the treaty, but it was prob- 
ably one of the wisest acts of his administration. 

103. France seeks an Alliance : the Genet Affair. — Similar 
wisdom and sagacity were shown by Washington in his treat- 
ment of " Citizen " Genet, a minister sent to this country dur- 
ing the French Revolution who sought to secure our aid for 
France, which was then at war with Great Britain. Washing- 
ton's firmness and determination in this case were all the more 
praiseworthy as there was great popular clamor and enthusiasm 
for the cause of France. The French had aided us during 
the Revolution, and it seemed but proper gratitude that we 
should accede to her request. Washington felt that a war 
with England at this time would be disastrous to the nation, 
so he steadfastly refused to consider Genet's request. Instead, 
he issued a proclamation stating that the United States was 
neutral and would not interfere in any quarrels between Euro- 
pean nations. Genet then appealed directly to the people to 
assist France in spite of the commands of the President, and 
he succeeded in arousing much popular excitement. Wash- 
ington, however, demanded his recall, and France promptly 
obeyed. 

104. Trouble with France. — Later, in John Adams's ad- 
ministration, the country was nearly involved in- a war with 
France. She was angered because the United States did not 



68 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

take up her quarrel and help her against England. American 
merchant vessels were captured, and our envoys insulted. "War 
was threatened unless we should give the French considerable 
money. This bid for a bribe was greeted with scorn. To the 
French demands Pinckney made the famous reply, " Millions 
for defence ; not one cent for tribute." This sentiment is as 
marked a characteristic of Americanism as was the prudent 
non-interference of Washington. While the United States has 
always been unwilling to interfere in foreign quarrels, it has 
not been reluctant or tardy in maintaining its rights. Pinck- 
ney's words of defiance aroused the country. War broke out, 
and several French vessels were captured. When Napoleon 
came into power, however, hostilities ceased. (See § 110.) 

105. " Second War for Independence. " — As war continued 
between France and England, the interference with American 
commerce became more and more unbearable. The frequent 
impressment of American seamen by England made the feeling 
still more bitter. At last, in Madison's administration, war 
was declared against England. (See Part II, Chap. VI.) This 
war was of such importance in connection with the establish- 
ment of the new nation that it is sometimes called the Second 
War for Independence. In the first place, it gained for us the 
respect of foreign nations. The United States was henceforth 
regarded as a power that could not be insulted with impunity. 
We had shown our readiness and ability to maintain our rights, 
and England especially, which had boasted the title of " mistress 
of the seas," more than once had to lower her colors before the 
courage and skill of the American navy. In gaining the respect 
of other nations, we were ourselves inspired with confidence. 

By the end of the War of 1812 the republic had passed 
through its experimental stage. The " period of weakness " 
was over. The feeling of confidence and security showed 
itself in many ways. Literature, science, and arts began to 
flourish, and the impulse was given to a century of national 
progress which has not been exceeded, if it has been equalled, 
by any other country in any other age. The period following 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 59 

the war (Monroe's administration) presented such a pleasant 
contrast to the previous troublous times that it was known as 
the " Era of Good Feeling." In addition to this important 
result of the war, home industry, especially manufacturing, 
was greatly encouraged. Owing to our imports being cut off 
for several years, factories were started, especially cotton and 
woollen mills, to supply us with goods which, under other 
circumstances, we would have purchased from abroad. The 
foundation was thus laid for a manufacturing industry which 
to-day makes the United States one of the most prosperous 
manufacturing countries of the world. 

106. The Monroe Doctrine. — The Monroe Doctrine m^y also 
be viewed as indirectly a result of the self-confidence iitspired 
by the War of 1812. It expressed in positive terms the 
attitude of the United States toward other nations of the 
world. Mexico and the South American republics had 
declared themselves independent of Spain and established 
republican governments. It was feared that some European 
nation would try to help Spain regain her possessions. Presi- 
dent Monroe declared in a message to Congress that while Ave 
would not interfere with European quarrels, we should also 
resist any European interference in this continent. Europe 
has heeded the Monroe doctrine, and to-day almost the entire 
American continent is formed of self-governing republics. 

III. Growth and Development 

107. Promotion of Industries. — In addition to the impetus 
given to manufacturing by the cutting off of our imports 
during the War of 1812, home production was further encour- 
aged by a system of protective tariff. The purpose of the 
tariff was to lay such a duty on imports that it would be 
cheaper to buy home products. Opinions were divided as to 
the wisdom of this policy. The protective tariff, or ''American 
system," as it was called, certainly had the effect of greatly 
increasing our manufacturing, especially in the North. 

The Constitution provides that Congress shall have power to 



60 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



"promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing 
for limited periods of time, to authors and inventors, the exclu- 
sive right to their respective writings and discoveries." In 
pursuance of this power Congress passed laws concerning copy- 
rights and patents. As a result, inventors have been encour- 
aged and the century just past has been a most remarkable 
one for the number and importance of its inventions. (See 
Part IV, Chap. XI.) 

108. Development of the Nation. — The rapid development 
of tlie resources of the country was assured as soon as order 




Lewis and Clark's Route 

was established and a stable currency provided. (See Part III, 
Chap. VIII.) The expedition under Lewis and Clark, sent out 
during Jefferson's administration to explore the Louisiana 
territory, which had recently been purchased, was exceedingly 
important. It furnished knowledge of the vast resources of 
the far West, which later aroused a desire for emigration. The 
government encouraged emigration and settlement of the new 
territory west of the Alleghanies by making free grants of land, 
in some cases exempting the settlers from taxation. The cause 
of free education was furthered by land grants. Under this 
stimulus the territories increased in population and prospered. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 



61 



Western emigration was further encouraged by the construc- 
tion of a great national road. This work was pushed forward 
during Monroe's administration. The road eventually extended 
almost to the Mississippi. The breaking of the power of the 
Indians, who were a constant menace in the Northwest terri- 
tory, also encouraged emigration to that region. Cincinnati 
was founded in 1788. Shortly after, the first western news- 
paper was published. 

One by one new states were admitted to the Union. The 
beginning was made in Washington's administration, Vermont, 
Kentucky, and Tennessee being added to the thirteen original 
states. Ohio was the first of the states formed out of the 
Northwest territory to be admitted to the Union. 




Route of the National Road. 

109. Development of Democratic Ideas. — While the nation 
was thus becoming firmly established, the fundamental ideas 
of the Declaration of Independence were deeply influencing 
the people. The notion of the equality of all men had also 
found expression in a clau.se of the Constitution forbidding 
Congress to grant any title of nobility. Everything of a 
monarchical character or tendency was looked upon with 
mingled suspicion and contempt. This idea of equality had 
roused the people of France to revolution. During the " Reign 
of Terror" the king and queen had been beheaded, and the 
streets of Paris ran red with the blood of the nobility. This 
was during Washington's administration, at the time that 
Genet was endeavoring to obtain our assistance for France. 
Many of the Americans sympathized with the French, and 
were deeply stirred by their democratic enthusiasm. In imita- 



62 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



tion of the French thej called each other " citizen," and in 
every way possible showed their disapproval of everything 
that savored of royalty. This feeling was manifested espe- 
cially by the anti-Federalists, who always feared that the 
rights of the people were in danger of being encroached upon. 
It was due to their efforts that the lirst ten amendments to 
the Constitution, known as the " Bill of Rights," were passed, 
all of which were intended carefully to insure the rights and 
guard the personal liberty of the people. 

When Thomas Jefferson, the most prominent of the anti- 
Federalists and author of the Declaration of Independence, 

became President, the princi- 
ples of equality and democracy 
were strongly emphasized. In 
his dress and manner he set 
an example of *' rejjublican 
simplicity." He mingled with 
the people as one of them. 
AVashington and Adams, both 
somewhat influenced by mo- 
narchical customs, stood more 
apart from the people. They 
addressed the Congress in per- 
son. Jefferson, on the con- 
trary, merely sent a written 
message. His example has 
been followed by all subse- 
quent presidents, with the exception of Woodrow \Vilson. The 
Declaration of Independence, the enthusiastic sympathy aroused 
by the French Eevolution, and Jefferson's personal example all 
gave expression to the liberty -loving instincts of the American 
people. America stands to-day as the country of equality and 
liberty. It is most fitting that the tirst object to greet the eye 
of the foreigner approaching New York harbor should be the 
statue of Liberty, a gift of the French republic. 




SlATUK UF LlBEHTY 

In New York Harbor 



PART II 
TROUBLES AT HOME AXD ABROAD 

CHAPTER VI 

Troubles with Foreign Countries 

Foreign Wars ' . 65 

War of 1812 66 

( )regon Boundary Dispute 69 

War with Mexico 70 

Spanisli-American War ......... 74 

European Complications 76 



CHAPTER Vn 

Indian Wars. Slavery and the Civil War 

Troubles with the Indians 

History of Slavery 

National Progress and the Slavery Question 

Early History of Slavery .... 

Increased Importance of the Slavery Question 

Anti-slavery Agitation .... 

The Question settled 

The Civil War 

Causes of the War ..... 

Events of the War 

Effects and Consequences of the War 



79 
82 
82 
83 
84 
86 
88 
91 
91 
92 
95 



63 



CHAPTER VI 

TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 

Foreign Wars. — 110. Troubles with France and Tripoli. 

War of 1812. — 111. Causes of the War. 112. Declaration of War. 

llo. The War on Land. 114. Naval Success. 115. Effects of the 

War. 
Oregon Boundary Dispute. — 110. Conflicting Claiui.s. 117. "54^40' 

or fight." 118. Settlement by Treaty. 
War "With Mexico. — 1 19. Events leading to the War. 120. Immediate 

Cau.se of War. 121. Campaign Plans. 122. Success of United 

States. 123. Re.sult of the War. 124. Justice of the War. 125. Later 

Relations with Mexico. 
Spanish-American War. — 126. Causes of the War. 127. Destruction 

of the Maine. 128. Success of the United States Army and Navy. 

120. Treaty of Peace. 130. Governiueut of the Islands. 131. Prob- 
lems for the Future. 
European Complications. — 132. The Great European Conflict. 

133. Difficulties of the Neutral States. 134. The Submarine I.ssue. 



64 



CHAPTER VI 

TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 

I. Foreign Wars 

110. Troubles with France and Tripoli. — For nearly the first 
century of its national life the United States had comparatively 
little trouble with foreign nations. In its intercourse with 
other nations difficulties and disagreements have frequently 
arisen, but it has generally been possible to settle these ami- 
cably by treaty. The Oregon boundary question is an instance 
of this. There have been several occasions upon which diffi- 
culties with foreign nations led to open hostilities, though not 
to serious wars. The first was the difficulty with France in 
John Adams's administration. It was due to French inter- 
ference with American commerce and the dishonorable attempt 
to extort monej^ from the envoys as the price of peace. This 
aroused such indignation that preparations were made for war 
(1798), and some French vessels were captured. When ISTapo- 
leon came into power (1799), he speedily made peace, receiving 
the American envoys with the respect due to the representa- 
tives of an independent nation. The war with Tripoli (1801) 
was merely a naval expedition against the pirates of the Bar- 
bary states of iSTorth Africa, who had been exacting tribute 
from the nations of Europe as well as of America. The United 
States deserves the credit of having first brought the ruler of 
Tripoli to terms and of securing the freedom of the Mediter- 
ranean for merchant vessels. These two conflicts proved to 
the world that although the United States was a young and 
struggling nation, it was determined nevertheless to maintain 
its rights. On three other occasions, however, the international 

65 



66 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

differences were of a more serious nature and were settled by 
wars of a more extensive character. The early years of the 
nineteenth century were marked by the War of 1812 with 
England; the middle of the century saw the Mexican War 
(1846-48) ; and near its close occurred the Spanish War 
(1898), fortunately of but a few months' duration. 

II. "War of 1812 

111. Causes of the War. — The war between England and 
France had proved very disastrous to American commerce. 
Each of the warring nations issued orders forbidding ships 
of neutral nations to enter the other's ports. Ships that 
attempted to disobey these orders were liable to be captured 
by the foreign warships. The Embargo Act (1807) and Non- 
intercourse Act (1809) were passed by Congress in the attempt 
to remedy the matter. The one forbade any American vessel 
to leave port, the other prohibited commercial intercourse with 
England and France. It was expected that these laws would 
compel England and France to revoke their orders; but they 
proved to be unwise pieces of legislation, and worked serious 
injury to America. The commercial distress that they occa- 
sioned inflamed the people against the primary cause of all the 
trouble. The other and principal cause of the war was the 
right which England claimed to search American ships, and 
take from them sailors who they claimed were British subjects. 
This was known as the ''right of search." The claim itself 
was mijust enough, and the high-handed manner in which the 
commanders of British warships exercised the "right" raised 
America's anger to the highest pitch. The people demanded 
the right to send their ships where they pleased, and protection 
for their sailors against such seizures. These demands found 
voice in the battle cry of the war party: "Free Trade and 
Sailor's Eights." 

112. Declaration of War (1812). — Other less important 
events had helped to fan the ill will of the people against 
England. England had been suspected of encouraging Indian 




- G U I^^^HE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



Reference Maps foe the War of 1812 



68 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

outbreaks, and of endeavoring to persuade New England to se- 
cede from the Union and to join Canada. Madison, however, was 
a peace-loving man and delayed final action as long as possible ; 
but public indignation against Great Britain's acts forced Con- 
gress to declare war in the summer of 1812. In view of the 
great damage to commerce and the impressment of several 
thousand men by the British navy, it is surprising that war was 
not declared sooner. There was good cause for war against 
France also, but she was the traditional friend of the United 
States, and her offences had not been so grave as Great Brit- 
ain's. Moreover, the country was not well prepared for war 
against one, to say nothing of fighting two powerful enemies. 

113. The War on Land. — The campaign on land soon demon- 
strated the utter lack of preparation of the Americans for the 
conflict. The British Canadian possessions were the object of 
attack, but the American generals, principally Revolutionary 
officers too old for such active service, managed the invasion 
poorly, and the result was failure. General Hull, who was in 
command of the American forces at Detroit, surrendered that 
city and all Michigan to the British without firing a gun in its 
defence. It now began to appear that instead of conquering 
Canada, the Americans might lose the entire Northwest terri- 
tory. Later some successes were achieved by younger and 
more competent generals. These operations Avere all on the 
Canadian border around the Great Lakes. 

English warships plundered and burned some Atlantic ports 
and succeeded in keeping the seaboard in a state of terror. 
The burning of Washington by the invaders was a disgrace- 
ful incident of the war. The repulse of the British at New 
Orleans was a brilliant victory for the Americans, who were 
under the command of General Jackson. The Americans lost 
about seventy against two thousand killed, wounded, and mis- 
sing of the enemy. 

114. Naval Success. — In striking contrast to the reverses 
of the army were the brilliant successes of the navy. The 
disparity of naval forces was very great, England having by 



TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 69 

far the greater number of vessels. Yet such was the superiority 
of discipline and marksmanship of the American sailor that 
an almost unbroken succession of naval victories was gained. 
The frigate Constitution (Old Ironsides) umde an especially 
brilliant record. Perry's celebrated victory on Lake Erie, 
with ships built from the green wood of the Michigan forests, 
saved the Northwest territory-. Macdonough's victory on Lake 
Champlain prevented invasion of ISTew York. Privateers of 
both nations scoured the seas, but each nation suffered heavily 
in this kind of warfare. 

115. Effects of the War. — The treaty of peace which ended 
the war apparently left things as they were before, strangely 
enough saying nothing at all about the British claim of " right 
of search," the primary cause of the trouble. Nevertheless 
our great naval victories had banished all fear of any future 
attempt on the part of Great Britain to press such a claim. 
The remarkable battle of New Orleans had proved the ability 
of the army to repel invasion. The war, therefore, had not 
been fought in vain. It convinced the world that no European 
nation could hope to gain a foothold on the territory of the 
United States. One important effect of the war was to give 
a great impulse to manufacturing in the United States. The 
destruction of commerce had compelled the home manufacture 
of goods for which we had formerly depended upon other 
countries. 

The war has fitly been called " The Second War for Inde- 
pendence." Its conclusion marked the end of the first quarter 
century of national life — "The Period of Weakness." This 
was now followed by the growth of a strong feeling of nation- 
ality. It was the dawn of a new era in America, remarkable 
for internal improvements and increased prosperity. 

III. Oregon Boundary Dispute 

116. Conflicting Claims. — The territory between upper Cal- 
ifornia and the southern boundary of Alaska (54° 40') was 
claimed by both the United States and England. The United 



70 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

States based its claim upon the discovery of the Columbia 
River by Robert Gray (1792), the exploration by Lewis and 
Clark (1805) (see § 108), and the establishment of a trading- 
post, Astoria, by John Jacob Astor (1811). England's claims 
were based upon still earlier discovery and settlement. A 
treaty granting joint occupancy was made (1818), and the 
question did not assume importance for many years. 

117. "54° 40' or Fight." — Astor sold out to an English fur- 
trading company and it looked at one time as if the English 
would gain control. Dr. Marcus Whitman, an American mis- 
sionary, made great efforts (1842—43), however, to secure the 
Oregon country for the United States by inducing immigra- 
tion. He successfully organized a large emigrant train and 
piloted it to the Columbia River. The Americans were soon 
in the majority and organized a local government. The 
demand for the whole territory became very strong, one of the 
campaign cries of 1844 being " 54° 40' or fight." 

118. Settlement by Treaty. — Fortunately temperate and wise 
councils prevailed, and the matter was settled by a compromise 
treaty, according to the terms of which the Oregon territory 
was divided, England securing that portion north of the 49th 
parallel, the United States the portion south. Thus there was 
added to the United States a vast territory whose ownership 
had been in dispute. It was a great triumph for the principle 
of peaceful diplomatic settlement of international disagree' 
ments, as against the unwise and costly appeal to the barbari- 
ties of war. (See map between pages 132-133.) 

IV. War with Mexico 

119. Events leading to the War. — Texas was originally a 
part of ^Mexican territory. Emigrants from the United States 
in large numbers settled a portion of the territory, and becom- 
ing dissatisfied with Mexican rule, set up a government of their 
own. The attempt of Mexico to quell this revolt was defeated ; 
and Texas became an independent republic (1836), and was 
treated as such by the United States and other nations. Mex- 



TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 



71 



ico, however, did not formally relinquish her claim over the 
country. In 1837 Texas, the " Lone Star State," applied for ad- 
mission to the Union, but was not formally annexed until 1845. 
Its annexation had been strongly urged by the South, as it 
would mean an extension of slave territory and increased in- 




Map of the Mexican War 



fluence in favor of slavery in both houses of Congress. On 
this account some historians regard slavery as the real cause 
of the IVIexican "War. 

120. Immediate Cause of the War. — The immediate cause 
of the war was a boundary dispute between Texas and Mexico. 



72 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The former claimed to the Rio Grande, the latter to the Nueces 
River. The United States supported the claim of Texas, and 
sent troops to the disputed territory. Some encounters took 
place with Mexican soldiers, and Congress shortly afterward 
declared war. 

121. Campaign Plans. — Armies to invade Mexico and cap- 
ture its capital were sent by way of the Rio Grande and Vera 
Cruz. Another army was sent against the Mexican territory 
of New Mexico, and a fleet on the Pacific attacked California. 

122. Success of the United States. — The United States troops 
had to force their way for great distances through a very diffi- 
cult and hostile country, and Avere invariably greatly outnum- 
bered by the opposing armies. The Mexicans, however, were 
poorly armed and disciplined, and though they did not lack in 
courage, were defeated in every engagement. The war ended 
with General Scott in possession of the City of Mexico, and 
United States troops occupying New Mexico and California. 

123. Result of the War. — The treaty of peace, which was 
concluded in 1848, was very favorable to the United States. 
The Texas boundary claim was acknowledged, and upper 
California and New Mexico, as then constituted, were ceded to 
the United States for $15,000,000. Thus was acquired a ter- 
ritory larger than the United States at the close of the Revo- 
lution. The assumption by the United States of certain 
Mexican debts raised the cost of this new territory to over 
$25,000,000. This was thought by many at the time to be an 
expensive bargain, but subsequent events have proved its enor- 
mous value. 

124. Justice of the "War. — Opinion differed greatly as to 
the justice of this war. On the one hand it was held that the 
Mexican government was so unstable that arrangements satis- 
factorily guaranteeing the rights of Americans could not have 
been made without recourse to war. On the other hand, it was 
argued, that all the events immediate and remote leading up 
to the war made the latter an unjustifiable war of conquest, 
waged by a strong nation against a feeble neighbor. 



0^||E\G_[oi!k^^ 
T I /.^ R 1 1 t) *R Y 



-.■*> 
^^'-^J* 



bREAT SAt,^ MKE 



**- 1 ■ -Ifc CEDED' " 



l) ^^Mi%, |M E X li 
*^ ym'T O T (H- E 



Oo^-— 3l-J'-?a-*'*GELES 



PACIFIC 








TROPIC OF 

C E A N 



MAP SHOWING THE 
TERRITORY ACQUIRED 

FROM MEXICO 

AS THE RESULT OF 

THE MEXICAN WAR 



from Green"wicn 



117 



Longitude West 



TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 73 

125. Later Relations with Mexico. During the Civil War, 
while the government of the United States was too busily 
engaged to prevent the invasion, the French sent troops to 
Mexico, overthrew the government, set up an empire in its 
stead with Maximilian, an Archduke of Austria, as Emperor. 
This was in violation of the Monroe Doctrine, and when the 
Civil War was concluded, the United States government de- 
manded that France withdraw her troops from Mexican terri- 
tory. France acceded to this demand, Maximilian was captured 
and shot by the Mexicans (1867), and the danger of the estab- 
lishment of a foreign empire on American soil was averted. 
Thus the United States in a critical period of Mexican history 
materially assisted that country to regain its freedom to de- 
velop as an independent and sovereign nation. 

Mexico suffered from internal dissensions until Porlirio Diaz 
became president (1877). Diaz restored order and maintained 
peace for more than thirty years, but his rule, though giving 
to Mexico the appearance of prosperity, was said to favor for- 
eign capitalists and wealthy landowners, while being grossly 
oppressive to the common people. The latter were kept in a 
state of " peonage " little better than slavery. To correct 
these evils, the people under various patriotic leaders resorted to 
force, and the revolutionary movements thus inaugurated (1910) 
threatened to embroil other countries, the lives and property of 
whose subjects or citizens resident in Mexico were endangered. 

There were many in the United States who thought that 
this country should intervene in Mexico in order to restore 
law and order. President Taft, however, adopted a policy 
of strict neutrality, and Wilson, who succeeded him, one of 
'• watchful waiting " in order that the Mexican people might 
be permitted to work out their own salvation. A raid upon 
the border town of Columbus, Texas, however, under the 
leadership of Villa, a Mexican chieftain, led the United 
States to send a punitive expedition into Mexico in his pur- 
suit. Although the " First Chief," Carranza, head of the gov- 
ernment of Mexico, was himself fighting Villa, the presence 



74 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

of American troops on Mexican soil was strongly resented, and 
relations between the two countries were severely strained. 
The American troops failed to capture Villa, who hid in the 
mountains, and were finally withdrawn across the border. The 
international situation presented numerous and serious ditti- 
culties. It was generally realized that intervention would 
mean war with Mexico. Those who supportediPresident Wilson 
felt that this should be avoided if possible and that the United 
States should endeavor to assist its weaker and sorely attticted 
neighbor to establish a progressive, independent, and stable 
government that would assure it lasting peace and prosperity. 

V. The Spanish-American War 

126. Causes of the War. — In the early years of the nine- 
teenth century, Spanish misrule in Florida was a source of 
trouble to the United States. This difficulty, fortunately, was 
amicably settled (1819) by the Florida purchase. The United 
States did not, however, thus entirely get rid of its trouble- 
some neighbors. Spain still held Cuba, an island so near the 
shores of the United States that the latter could not avoid 
being interested in its welfare and progress, Spain, unfortu- 
nately, seemed incapable of governing the Cubans. The island 
was in a state of chronic rebellion. The severe measures 
taken by Spain to put down the rebellion enlisted the sym- 
pathy of Americans for the Cubans in their struggle for inde- 
pendence. Unsuccessful attempts were made to have Congress 
formally recognize the Cuban republic. Filibustering expedi- 
tions were fitted out which succeeded in carrying aid to the 
Cubans in spite of the efforts of the United States government 
to prevent it. Although the United States government thus at- 
tempted to maintain a friendly or neutral attitude to Spain, there 
was much resentment felt by the Spanish against the attempted 
American interference. The excessively cruel " Reconcentrado " 
policy of the Spanish governor-general Weyler, aroused the 
American people to a high pitch of indignation, and it soon 
became evident that interference of some kind must take place. 



TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 75 

127. The Destruction of the " Maine ' (February 15, 1898). — 

The mysterious blowing up of the Maine iu Havana harbor 
while on a friendly visit to Cuba undoubtedly hastened American 
intervention. Congress declared war April 21, 1898, avowing its 
purpose to restore peace to Cuba and give its people an oppor- 
tunity to establish for themselves a stable form of government. 

128. Success of United States Army and Navy. — Fortunately 
the war was a very brief one, the United States army and navy 
being uniformly successful. Admiral Dewey completely de- 
stroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay without the loss of a 
single sailor. Another American fleet under Admirals Sampson 
and Schley won a similar victory (July 3) over the Spanish 
fleet under Cervera as the latter attempted to escape from 
Santiago harbor. The land battles took place near Santiago de 
Cuba, which was captured by the Americans. 

129. Treaty of Peace. — Hostilities were suspended (August 
12) while negotiations for peace were in progress in Paris. By 
the terms of the treaty, Spain gave up her claim to Cuba, and 
ceded Porto Eico and her other West India islands to the 
United States, thus withdrawing from the Western Hemi- 
sphere. Spain also gave up the Philippines, receiving in ex- 
change $20,000,000. 

130. Government of the Islands. — The United States estab- 
lished a civil government in Cuba, pending the establishment 
of a government by the Cubans themselves. This was Anally 
accomplished in 1902 and the United States withdrew. Porto 
Rico was made a territory. The rebellion of the Filipinos 
against the Spanish government which existed during the 
Spanish-American AVar later became a rebellion against the 
United States. The government jiromptly quelled the rebel- 
lion and established order in the islands. In 1901 military 
rule was changed to civil government, and a civil governor, 
William H. Taft, was appointed by the President, 

131. Problems for the Future. — Just what the ultimate dis- 
position of our new })Ossessions will be is impossible to proph- 
esy. Will Cuba be able to govern itself ? Is annexation to 



76 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the United States a probable event ? Is such annexation de- 
sirable ? Is it or is it not right ".' are questions that receive 
different answers from both Cubans and Americans. 

In February, 1917, Congress gave to the inhabitants of Porto 
Rico full rights of United States citizenship, and a large meas- 
ure of self-government. Should the Filipinos be given their 
independence ? If not, shall our treatment of the Asiatic 
archipelago be similar to our treatment of Porto Rico? Must 
the United States develop a colonial policy ? This array of 
questions indicates the serious nature of the problems that 
confront the United States. Faith in her past achievements 
leads us to have confidence that she will so solve them that 
the Spanish War will prove to have been what it was origi- 
nally declared to be — a war for humanity. 

VI. European Complications 

132. The Great European Conflict. — In August, 1914, Austria- 
Hungary declared war against Servia and soon thereafter most 
of the nations of Europe became embroiled in the conflict. 
The '• Central Powers '" — Germany and Austria-Hungary — 
assisted by Turkey and later by Bulgaria, were arrayed against 
Russia, which had supported Servia, France, Belgium, England, 
and fJapan. These " Allies " were later joined by Italy, Portu- 
gal, and Roumania. Including the colonial possessions of these 
nations, more than sixty per cent of the inhabitable land area 
of the world and nearly sixty per cent of its population were 
represented in this titanic struggle. It has been described as 
not only the most stupendous war in all history but the most 
appalling disaster that has ever befallen civilization. 

133. Difficulties of the Neutral Nations. — The warring na- 
tions in their life-and-death struggle with each other, disregarded 
or trespassed upon the rights of neutrals. Commerce was not 
only seriously interfered with, but ships were captured or sunk 
and the lives of their crews and passengers jeopardized or lost. 
The United States was therefore in constant danger of being 
drawn into the maelstrom of the great world conflict. 



TliOUBLE WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 77 

134. The Submarine Issue. — President Wilson stood firmly 
for the preservation of a " strict neutrality " by the United 
States. The most serious menace to peace with the world 
which he endeavored to maintain was the submarine warfare 
conducted by the Central Powers in their efforts to cripple the 
commerce of the Allies. The climax of what was regarded in 
America as violation of international law was reached in the 
sinking by a German " nnterseehot " of the Lusitania, a great 
ocean steamship most of whose passengers, including women 
and children, many of whom were Americans, were drowned. 
It was contended at the time by the German government that 
the Lusitania carried munitions of war as well as passengers. 

This disaster brought the United States to the verge of war 
with Germany, but President Wilson succeeded in averting 
this by securing a pledge from that nation that it would not 
allow its submarine commanders to torpedo neutral ships or 
enemy vessels not warships, unless warning were first given 
and passengers and crew removed to a place of safety. 

There were many Americans who were not satisfied with 
the way the submarine issue had been managed. They attacked 
the " note-writing policy " of the President in the campaign 
against his re-election. Many who supported Wilson empha- 
sized the fact that " he kept us out of war." Wilson was re- 
elected by a plurality of more than half a million votes over the 
Republican candidate, Mr. Hughes. The President's diplomatic 
treatment of the difficult situation created by the war seemed, 
therefore, to have received the approval of the American people. 

Early in 1917, Germany withdrew its pledge to America 
concerning submarine attacks without warning, and proclaimed 
a " war zone " on the high seas around their allied enemies, 
for the purpose of preventing munitions and other supplies 
from reaching their ports. Diplomatic relations with Ger- 
many were then severed, and on April 6, 1917, a formal 
declaration of the existence of a state of war was signed by 
the President. 



CHAPTER YII 

INDIAN WARS. SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR 

Troubles w^ith the Indians. — 135. Characteristics of the Iiidian.s. 
13(]. Relations between the Whites and Indians. 137. Conflicts be- 
fore the Revolution. 138. Since the Revolution. 139. Treatment of 
the Indians since the Civil War. 
History of Slavery. — Introductory. — liO. National Progress and the 
Slavery Question. 

Early History of Slavery. — 141 . Beginnings of Slavery in the North 
and South. 142. Slavery abolished in the North. 143. Laws against 
Importation of Slaves. 144. Congress asked to abolish Slavery. 

Increased Importance of the Slavery Question. — 145. Effect of In- 
vention of the Cotton Gin. 146. Slavery becomes a Political Ques- 
tion. 147. The Missouri Compromise. 

Anti-Slavery Agitation. — 148. Abolition. 149. Annexation of 
Texas. 150. Wilmot Proviso. 151. Omnibus Bill. 152. Anti-Slavery 
Feeling Intensified. 153. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 154. Debates of 
Lincoln and Douglas. 155. Dred Scott Decision. 15(3. John Brown's 
Raid. 

The Question Settled. —Ibl. Election of Lincoln. 158. South 
Carolina Secedes. 159. Emancipation Proclamation. 160. Thir- 
teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments. 
The Civil "War. — Causes of the War. — 161. Growth of Slavery in the 
South. 162. Effects of Slavery on the South. 163. Effects of Free- 
dom on the North. 164. The Doctrine of State Rights. 165. Effect 
of the Election of Lincoln. 166. The Question at Issue. 

Events of the War. — 167. Beginning of the War. 168. The South 
on the Defensive. 169. The Union Plan, and how it was carried out. 

Effects and Consequences of the War. — 170. Results of the War. 
171. The Problem of Reconstruction. 172. How the Problem was 
Solved. 173. The Alabama Claims. 



78 



CHAPTER VII 

INDIAN WARS. SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR 
I. Troubles with the Indians 

135. Characteristics of the Indians. — The original inhabit- 
ants of America, the Indians, as they were misnamed by 
Cohimbus, were not very numerous. It is estimated that 
there were only about 250,000 east of the Mississippi. They 
were divided into many tribes, and were scattered over a great 
extent of territory. They did a little rude farming, but main- 
tained themselves principally by hunting and fishing. They 
moved so frequently from place to place that they could 
hardly be said to " possess " the land of which they made so 
little use. Disease and bitter wars between the tribes kept 
'their numbers from growing. The tribal feuds also prevented 
the Indians from uniting successfully against the white in- 
vaders of their hunting grounds. They were patient, brave, 
and tireless hunters, with remarkable knowledge of woodcraft. 
Believing in the duty of "blood revenge," they became the 
savage and relentless foes of any who treated them badly. 
In warfare they were exceedingly treacherous and cruel. 
They were capable, however, of appreciating good treatment, 
and would repay kindness with kindness. 

136. Relations between the Whites and the Indians. — The 
French treated the Indians well. The missionaries made 
great sacrifices to convert them to Christianity, while the fur- 
traders did everything to gain their good will, treating them as 
equals and even intermarrying with them. The Iroquois, 
against whom the French had once fought, were the only 
Indians of the region claimed by France who were not her 

79 



80 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

strong allies. Most of the trouble that the English had with 
the Indians can be traced to unwise or unjust treatment of 
them. The settlers of the Middle colonies treated the Indians 
fairly, and thus established friendly relations with them, which 
were maintained for many years. The Virginians, profiting 
by the wise control of John Smith, had comj^aratively little 
trouble with the red men. New England, however, was the 
scene of cruel wars, largely because the settlers of that region 
regarded the Indians as a " nest of serpents " to be *' rooted 
out of the world." The Indians complained that " the English 
made them drunk and then cheated them in bargains." It 
should be borne in mind, however, that the Indians of New 
England were fiercer and more warlike than those of the 
Middle and Southern colonies. 

137. Conflicts before the Revolution. — There were frequent 
conflicts between the early white settlers and the Indians. 
One of the most important of these was known as the Pequot 
War (1637). It was waged by the inhabitants of the towns in 
the Connecticut Valley against the Pequot Indians, who had been 
plotting against the whites. The Avar was carried into the 
Indians' country, and resulted in the practical extermination 
of the tribe. The next important Indian war occurred in 
Massachusetts in 1675, and was known as King Philip's War, 
because it was led by a celebrated Indian chief of that name. 
It lasted two years, and ended with the death of King Philip 
and the complete destruction of the power of the Indian 
league. During the intercolonial wars, the Indians, with the 
exception of the powerful Iroquois tribe of New York, assisted 
the French. The last attempt of the Indians to resist the 
colonists occurred shortly after the close of the French and 
Indian War. It was known as Pontiac's conspiracy. The 
Indians under Pontiac were decisively defeated. 

138. Since the Revolution. — During the Revolution, the 
British instigated the Indians to attack the Americans. Hor- 
rible massacres took place in western Pennsylvania and New 
York. In Washington's administration there were Indian 



INDIAN WARS 



81 



troubles on the western frontier. The Indians were at first 
successful, but were afterward badly beaten by General 
Anthony Wayne. The next serious difficulty occurred with 
the Creeks of the Southwest territory, during the War of 1812. 
General Andrew Jackson defeated them, securing this terri- 
tory for the United States. He later (1818) conquered the 
Seminoles of Florida. Jackson's success indirectly led to our 
obtaining this territory from Spain. (See § 229.) The Black 
Hawk War (1832) resulted from the opposition of the Indians 
to the westward movement of the Americans. They were finally 
driven beyond the Mississippi River. The Seminoles, who had 
meanwhile broken out again, were also forced west of the 
Mississippi. In 1872 the Modocs, and in 1876 the Sioux, of 
the extreme West were compelled to occupy reservations in 
the Indian Territory, but not without serious wars. In the 
Sioux War General Custer and his entire command were 
destroyed. 

139. Treatment of the Indians since the Civil War. — The 
United States government has for a long time pursued the 
policy of restricting the various Ind- 
ian tribes to certain districts called 
reservations, where it has also aided 
them by distributing allowances of 
ammunition, food, etc. Unfortu- 
nately, cattle-kings and gold-hunters 
have frequently invaded the Indian 
reservations, utterly disregarding the 
rights supposed to be secured to the 
red men by treaties between them 
and the United States government. 
The government agents have also 
been corrupt in their dealings with 
the Indians. These acts of injustice 
have been the cause of most of the 
Indian uprisings. General Gran*- attempted to improve matters 
by his "Quaker policy " (1869), by which he gave the manage- 







^^ 



A Kiowa Chief 
From a photograph 



82 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

ment of the reservations into the hands of members of the Society 
of Friends. The government has further attempted to civilize 
the Indians by giving them independent ownership of farm- 
land, thus inducing them to become self-supporting. Efforts 
have also been successfully made to ci\alize the Indians by 
establishing schools for the education of their youth. The 
prevalent notion that the Indians are dying out seems to be 
erroneous. It is estimated that they are about as numerous 
to-day as they were when the continent was first discovered. 

History of Slavery 

I. Introductory 

140. National Progress and the Slavery Question. — The 

problem of government which confronted the United States 
at the close of the Revolution was satisfactorily settled by 
the adoption of the Constitution and the wise administration of 
Washington and his successors. " The Second War for Inde- 
pendence " (1812) won the " Free Trade and Sailor's Rights " for 
which it had been fought, and firmly established the United 
States as a nation. Acquisition of territory both by pur- 
chase and conquest extended the country's domain to the 
Pacific. Great tides of immigration flowed into the new land 
and developed its resources. Manufacturing, mining, and com- 
merce increased at such an unexampled rate that the internal 
development of the country more than kept pace with its great 
increase in area and its growth of population. This peaceful 
prosperity, however, was seriously disturbed by the great social 
and industrial question of slavery. Should the land west of 
the INIississippi be free or slave soil ? The IVIissouri Com- 
promise was passed (1820), and many believed that it had 
settled the question forever. It proved to be only a tempor- 
ary answer to the question. The struggle between those for 
and those against slavery continued, and finally became so 
bitter that it involved the country in the most terrible civil 



HISTORY OF SLAVERY 83 

war of history (1861-65). It took many years for the nation 
to recover from the effects of this disastrous war. Its great 
cost in life and treasure can only be justified by what it accom- 
plished for human freedom. 

n. Early History of Slavery 

141. Beginnings of Slavery in the North and South. — The 

history of slavery in the United States is a long story, extend- 
ing back to colonial times. Beginning with the importation of 
a few negroes into Virginia (1619), the practice of slave-holding 
gradually extended until by 1776 slavery existed in every one 
of the colonies. By 1790 there were over 600,000 slaves in the 
South, and about 40,000 in the North. This difference was due 
to the fact that slave labor never proved profitable in the North. 
The slaves were employed there generally as house servants. 
In the South, however, the institution flourished because the 
slaves seemed well adapted for labor in the rice fields and on 
the tobacco and indigo plantations. Later they were of great 
service in the cotton fields. 

142. Slavery abolished in the North. — Opposition to slave- 
holding was soon manifested. Even in the South there were 
many who objected to the custom. Some Quakers of Pennsyl- 
vania held a meeting as early as 1688 to protest against slavery, 
but it was not until 1780 that Pennsylvania provided by law 
for its gradual abolition. The Northern states one after the 
other abolished slavery, so that by 1810 there were no slaves 
north of IMason and Dixon's line. 

143. Laws against the Importation of Slaves. — Many of the 
colonies showed their opposition to slavery by passing laws 
against the importation of slaves, but the slaves were forced 
upon them by Great Britain. The Continental Congress also 
tried (1775) to prohibit their importation, and further showed 
its opposition to slavery by a provision in the Ordinance of 
1787, making the Northwest territory free soil. One of the 
compromises agreed to in forming the Constitution was the 



84 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

guarantee of non-interference with the slave trade imtil after 
1807 (see § 93). 

144. Congress asked to abolish Slavery. — Congress was pe- 
titioned (1790) to provide by law for the gradual extinction of 
slavery. This measure was endorsed by Franklin, and the 
policy was favored by Washington and Jefferson, though both 
the latter were slave-holders. Congress, however, decided that 
this was a matter to be left to the discretion of the several 
states. 

III. Increased Importance of the Slavery Question 

145. Effect of Invention of the Cotton-gin. — This simple 
invention of Eli Wlutney's (see § 25.^) had a wonderful 
effect upon the growth of slavery. Cotton-raising became a 
great Southern industry, and the negroes could be used to great 
advantage in the cotton fields. What opposition had existed 
in the South died out, and the slavery system flourished as it 
never before had done. Even in the Korth it found an advo- 
cate in the manufacturer, whose success with his cotton mills 
depended upon the Southern cotton crop. 

146. Slavery becomes a Political Question. — So far the 
opposition to slavery had been based upon moral grounds, but 
about this time (early in the nineteenth century) another dif- 
ference arose between the North and South that added com- 
plications to the slavery question. The South wished to buy 
its manufactured goods from European countries, where it 
could get them cheapest. The North wanted a tariff on foreign 
goods so that the Northern manufacturers could compete more 
successfully with the European. This would make the price 
of nlanufactured goods higher, and encourage the Northern 
industries. Both parties therefore wished to get more power 
in Congress : the North to limit slavery and make tariff laws, 
the South to extend slavery and legislate for free trade. 

147. The Missouri Compromise. — Mason and Dixon's Line 
and the Ohio Kiver formed the boundary between free and 



HISTORY OF SLAVERY 



85 




86 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

slave soil, east of the Mississippi. The question of the admis- 
sion of Missouri, a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803, as 
a free or a slave state, was stubbornly and angrily debated. 
It was finally settled by a compromise (1820), which admitted 
Missouri as a slave state, but at the same time admitted 
Maine as a free state. This kept the power between the 
North and South evenly balanced in the Senate. Slavery 
north of the southern boundary of Missouri was prohibited 
forever as a part of the agreement, and it was thought by many 
that the dispute over slavery was now satisfactorily settled. 

IV. Anti-slavery Agitation 

148. Abolition. — The moral sentimeut against slavery, how- 
ever, grew rapidly in the North. William Lloyd Garrison's 
paper, The Liberator (1831), demanded the " immediate and 
unconditional emancipation of every slave in the United 
States." The Southerners thought him insane, and many of 
the Northerners did not sympathize with such extreme de- 
mands. Garrison organized an abolition society (1832) ; others 
followed. There was violent opposition to these for several 
years, even in the North, yet their influence grew. Congress 
was petitioned almost daily by the ever-increasing number of 
Abolition societies. 

149. Annexation of Texas. — The next great event in the 
slavery controversy was the annexation of Texas. The South 
wanted Texas admitted as a slave state, and were successful. 
Slavery, on this account, has been said to be the real, if 
indirect, cause of the Mexican War. 

150. The Wilmot Proviso. — David Wilmot of Pennsylvania 
offered in Congress (1848) a motion forbidding slavery in any 
territory which should be acquired from Mexico. This motion 
was lost, but produced great excitement. 

151. The Omnibus Bill (Fillmore's Administration). — The 
Omnibus Bill was another compromise originated by Henry 
Clay, in 1850, which attempted to settle the difficulties growing 



HISTORY OF SLAVERY 87 

out of the admission of California and New Mexico as states. 
It proposed : -t~ 

1. California should come in as a free state. 

2. The territories of Utah and New Mexico should be formed 

without any provision in regard to slavery. 

3. Texas should be paid $10,000,000 to give up its claim on 

New Mexico. 

4. The slave trade should be prohibited in the District of 

Columbia. 

5. A fugitive slave law should be passed providing more effec- 

tively for the return of runaway slaves to their owners. 

This compromise measure did not achieve the peaceful solu- 
tion of the question which its friends had anticipated. The 
Fugitive Slave Law was systematically violated by anti-slavery 
agitators of the North, who secretly assisted escaping slaves. 
This kind of help became known as the " Underground Rail- 
road." 

152. Anti-slavery Feeling Intensified. — The violent anti- 
slavery feeling of the time found expression in literature, both 
in poetry and prose. John Greenleaf Whittier wrote many 
stirring poems which appealed strongly to the sympathies of 
the North. In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe published " Uncle 
Tom's Cabin," a vivid story of the miseries of slave life. It 
had a wonderful influence. More than half a million copies 
were sold within five years. The country was stirred as it 
had never been before. Congress became a scene of a great war 
of words between famous leaders from the North and South. 

153. Kansas and Nebraska Bill (1854, Pierce's Administra- 
tion). — The Compromise of 1850 only produced a lull in the 
excitement. Stephen A. Douglas introduced a bill in Congress 
to organize Kansas and Nebraska as territories, allowing the 
inhabitants of each to decide for themselves whether it should 
be admitted as a free or a slave state. This was called 
*' squatter sovereignty." Although it violated the Missouri 
Compromise, it became a law. Kansas and Nebraska then 



88 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

became the scene of a small civil war between the free state 
settlers and those in favor of slavery; this struggle lasted 
about five years (1854-59). " Bleeding Kansas" was the sadly 
appropriate term applied to that state. 

154. Debates of Lincoln and Douglas (1858). — Lincoln and 
Douglas, who were rival candidates for the Senate, engaged in 
joint debate. Lincoln insisted that the country could not be 
half slave and half free, but had to be wholly one or the other. 
Douglas held to the opposite view. This was one of the most 
famous political discussions ever held in the United States. 

155. Dred Scott Decision (1857, Buchanan's Administra- 
tion). — The supreme court of the United States, through 
Chief Justice Taney, declared that slave owners could carry 
their slaves with them into any state or territory, because 
slaves had no rights, and were like any other property that a 
man possessed. This was called the Dred Scott Decision, 
because it was given in the case of a negro of that name. The 
decision practically legalized slavery all over the country. It 
had the effect of uniting the North more firmly than ever in 
its efforts to abolish the system. 

156. John Brown's Raid ( 1859, Buchanans Administration). — 
John Brown, who had been a prominent '•' Free State" man in 
the Kansas struggle, with the help of a company of men seized 
Harper's Ferry in Virginia, and undertook to liberate the 
slaves. He was soon overcome, tried, and hanged. Though 
responsibility for the raid was disavowed by the North, it 
created great excitement because it was such a direct assault 
on slavery. The South thought that the North was trying 
to arm the slaves and induce them to revolt against their 
masters. 



V. The Question Settled 

157. Election of Lincoln (1860). — The election of Lincoln 
was thought to mean that the North would attempt to liberate 
the slaves, although his party was pledged merely against the 



HISTORY OF SLAVERY 89 

extension of slavery. As the South had now a minority in 
Congress, secession seemed to be the only hope of maintaining 
the rights in which it believed. 

158. South Carolina secedes (1860, Buchanan's Administra- 
tion). — South Carolina seceded (December, 1860), before 

^ fh^LejZy /h^^uu4c^^ ./.j>;v,^>^ ji;^ c<r**coc..«^^,.^ 

Extract from Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation 
Reduced facsimile of the autograph copy 

Lincoln was inaugurated. It was soon joined by six other 
states. Early in 18()1 these states organized a government 
under the name of the " Confederate States of America." Four 




90 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

more states joined the Confederacy after Lincoln's first call 
for troops, nuikiiii,^ eleven states in all. 

159. Emancipation Proclamation. — The Avar, Avhieli soon 
followed the secession, was waged avowedly to preserve the 

Union, not to free the 
slaves. But events seemed 
to Lincoln (1863) to war- 
rant issuing an emancipa- 
tion proclamation " as a 
fit and necessary war 
measure." It did not free 
the slaves in territory 
under union control, but 
only in those states en- 
gaged in rebellion. Slavery 
was not entirely abolished 
until after the conclusion 
Abraham Lincoln of the war 

160. Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments. — 

The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution (18(Jo) pro- 
hibited slavery in the United States or in any place subject to 
its jurisdiction. It gave every slave his freedom. The Four- 
teenth Amendment (1868) gave the freedmen the rights of 
citizenship. The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) made it pos- 
sible for them to vote. Fifty years of argument and bitter 
sectional feeling, leading to civil Avar, resulted finally in ac- 
cording the negro all the rights of his Avhite brother. 




the civil war 91 

The Civil War 

I. Causes of the War (1861-1865) 

161. Growth of Slavery in the South. — The real causes 
of the Civil War are to be found in the history of slavery. 
Slavery could not succeed as an institution in the North 
because the industrial conditions did not favor it. It accord- 
ingly died a natural death, and it was an easy matter for 
those opposed to slavery on moral grounds to secure legis- 
lation prohibiting it. Unfortunately, conditions in the South 
(especially after the invention of the cotton gin) seemed to 
favor the growth and extension of slavery. The advantages 
of slavery, however, were only apparent. The Southern 
planters seemed to profit by it. Few were wise enough to see 
that free labor in the long run is cheapest and best. 

162. Effects of Slavery on the South. — The prosperity of a 
country depends on the respect for honest labor and on the 
industry of its people. There could be no dignity of labor 
where slavery existed. The planters led a life of leisure, 
often giving charge of their affairs into the hands of paid over- 
seers. The poor whites were ashamed of their condition and 
worked as little as possible, while the slaves were lazy and 
careless ; for no man will do his best who cannot receive for 
his own use the fruits of his labor. Immigrants avoided a 
country where labor was despised. The consequence was that 
the South developed its resources very slowly, and did not 
increase so rapidly in wealth and population as the North. 

163. Effects of Freedom on the North. — The "equality of 
opportunity " which the North afforded its people stimulated 
industry and enterprise. There were of course rich and poor 
people, but there was no sharp dividing line between them. 
Every one, from the day laborer to the rich business man, 
was a workingman of some sort. Labor was respected and a 
democratic spirit prevailed. Immigrants eagerly sought the 



92 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Northern states to enjoy these advantages. The country in- 
creased wonderfully in wealth and power. 

164. The Doctrine of State Rights. — The people of the South 
saw and feared the growing power of the North. They felt 
that the North might some day attain a political supremacy 
that would enable it to abolish slavery. They maintained 
the doctrine of state rights. According to this doctrine, the 
Union was a compact of sovereign states, and the powers of 
the central government were strictly limited. A state could 
refuse to obey a law of Congress which it considered uncon- 
stitutional, and had the right to secede from the Union if it 
thought that course of action necessary or desirable. The 
North maintained an exactly opposite doctrine, believing the 
nation to be an indissoluble union of the people, and refused to 
grant the degree of independence to the separate states which 
the South claimed. 

165. Effect of the Election of Lincoln. — Although Lincoln 
declared in his inaugural speech that he had neither the 
right nor the inclination to interfere with the institution of 
slavery, yet the South believed that his election meant its 
abolition. A month before Lincoln's inauguration seven states 
seceded, and established a provisional government which they 
called the " Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis 
was chosen president. 

166. The Question at Issue. — The great question to be de- 
cided was the preservation or disruption of the Union. As 
Lincoln said, " Both parties deprecated war, but one of them 
would make war rather than let the nation survive, and the 
other would accept war rather than let it perish." But under- 
lying the difference of doctrine respecting the rights of the 
states and of the central government was the irreconcilable 
conflict of opinion concerning the institution of slavery. 

II. Events of the War 

167. The Beginning of the War. — The Southern states were 
not content to secede peaceably, but undertook to capture 



THE CIVIL WAR 93 

United States property, — forts, arsenals, etc. The first real 
act of war was the firing on Fort Sumter by the Confederates. 
This ended all wavering indecision in the North. Although 
Lincoln had said that he would not interfere with slavery, he 
had also pledged himself " to protect, defend, and preserve the 
Union." He immediately called for seventy-five thousand 
volunteers, and took other steps to redeem that pledge. 

168. The South on the Defensive. — The North had the ad- 
vantage of more men, greater wealth, and command of the sea. 
The South was better prepared for the war, had the best- 
trained army officers, and could depend on the labor of the 
slaves while the white men joined the army. Except for Lee's 
two unsuccessful invasions of the North (Antietam and Get- 
tysburg), the war was fought on Southern soil. The Con- 
federates were therefore fighting on the defensive practically 
throughout the contest. This, although desolating to the coun- 
try, was from a military point of view an advantage to the 
South. 

169. The TTnion Plan and how it was carried out. — The 
Union plan was : — 

(a) To BLOCKADE ALL SoUTHERX PoRTS SO aS tO CUt off 

supplies from the South. This blockade was maintained very 
effectively. The South was unable to export its cotton and 
receive in exchange the supplies that it needed. This " star- 
vation of the South by blockade " was one of the most impor- 
tant factors in securing the submission of the Confederacy. 

(b) To OPEX THE Mississippi, so as to cut the Confederacy 
in two and give the North an outlet to the Gulf of Mexico. 
This was accomplished mainly by Generals Grant and Sherman 
and Admiral Farragut. By April, 1862, the Union forces had 
possession of the Mississippi as far south as Vicksburg, Later 
(April 25, 1862) Farragut's fleet took New Orleans, and on July 
4, 1863, Vicksburg surrendered to General Grant. A few days 
later (July 9) Port Hudson also surrendered. This opened up 
the Mississippi, and put it entirely in the control of the Union 
forces. 



94 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



(c) To CAPTURE Richmond. — General McClellan and his 
successors, after many bloody battles, failed in their operations 
against Richmond. Later, Grant was given the command, and 
he and Sherman agreed upon a " hammering campaign." Grant 




Campaiuns in Virginia 



was to take Richmond ; Sherman was to march through Georgia 
to the sea. Grant succeeded, after a stubborn campaign, in 
taking Petersburg (April 2, 1865), situated near Richmond, 
and the next day entered Richmond, which General Lee had 



THE CIVIL WAR 95 

evacuated. A few days later (April 9) Lee surrendered to 
Grant at Appomattox Court House near Richmond. Mean- 
while Sherman had accomplished his task of breaking through 
the Confederate line in the west, marching to the sea, and 
thence northward to Virginia. He kept the enemy engaged so 
that they could not help Lee in his fight against Grant. Sher- 
man was marching to reenforce the latter when Lee surren- 
dered. This ended the great contest. The Confederacy had 
fallen. 

III. Effects and Consequences of tbe War 

170. Results of the War. — The success of the North assured 
the preservation of the Union and the abolition of slavery. 
The Emancipation Proclamation had declared the freedom of 
the slaves within the Confederate lines, but did not free the 
slaves in loyal states nor in territory held by Union forces. 
The Thirteenth Amendment (December 18, 1865) soon com- 
pleted the work of the Emancipation Proclamation. These 
great results, however, had been accomplished at a fearful cost. 
The nation lost nearly a million able-bodied men, and the 
South was one great area of desolation. The money cost can 
hardly be estimated. Industries suffered terribly, and a na- 
tional debt of nearly three thousand millions existed at the 
end of the war. 

171. The Problem of Reconstruction. — The difficult problem 
of reconstructing the Union had to be solved by the people 
with Andrew Johnson as President, as the untimely death of 
Abraham Lincoln by assassination had deprived the country 
of his great leadership. The greatest problem of all was how 
to treat the states that had seceded. How was their local 
government to be constructed ? Under what conditions should 
they resume their places in the Union ? Another great ques- 
tion was the payment of the national debt. The care of the 
millions of freed negroes was also a serious difficulty. Opinions 
differed greatly as to how the leaders of the rebellion should 
be treated. 



96 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

172. How the Problem was Solved. — President Johnson's 
plan was very simple. He thought that the Southern states 
should be allowed to resume their places in the Union on con- 
dition that they repudiate the Secession ordinances and the 
Confederate war debt, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment. 
They all complied with these demands, but Congress, which dis- 
agreed with the President, refused to admit the representatives 
of the Southern states until the rights of the freedmen were 
more carefully provided for. Military governors were appointed 
for the South, and no state was to be admitted unless it ac- 
cepted the Fourteenth Amendment. It was not until 1870 that 
every state was thus readmitted. The Southern states were 
prevented from passing laws discriminating against the freed- 
men, and the right to vote was placed within their reach by 
the Fifteenth Amendment, There was, naturally, much disor- 
der in readjusting the industrial, social, and political conditions. 
It was not until Hayes's administration (1877) that Federal 
troops were entirely withdrawn from the South. The leaders 
of the war were dealt with leniently. Jefferson Davis was 
never tried, and as early as 1808 a full pardon was granted all 
persons who had taken part against the Union. The war debt 
incurred by the North was assumed by the national government, 
but the Confederate debt was repudiated. 

173. The Alabama Claims. — The Alabama and other Con- 
federate cruisers built in England and manned in part by 
English crews had wrought havoc with American commerce 
during the war. The United States keenly resented England's 
attitude in this matter, but was not in a position to demand 
justice until after the conclusion of the war. The claims 
against England were then strongly pressed. The difficulty 
between the two nations was finally settled by arbitration. Ac- 
cording to the terms of the treaty, which was one of the great 
achievements of Grant's administration (1871), England paid 
the United States $15,500,000 in settlement of the claims. 
This was a great triumph for the principle of arbitration. (See 
§ 316.) 



PART III 
FINANCE AND POLITICS 

CHAPTER VIII 

Financial History 

Money of Colonial and Revolutionary Times 09 

Currency after the Revolution 101 

Bimetallism , . ....... 102 

Banking System 104 

Raising Revenue 10(5 

The Tariff Question 107 

CHAPTER IX 

History of Political Parties 

Introductory . . . . . . . . . . .112 

Interpretation of the Constitution and the Origin of Parties . .113 
The Federalists and Republicans (from Washington to John Quincy 

Adams) 115 

Rise of the Democratic and Whig Parties 118 

Slavery and the Civil War as Political Questions .... 120 
Recent Political Issues 123 



97 



CHAPTER VIII 

FINANCIAL HISTORY 

Money of Colonial and Revolutionary Times. — 174. Barter and Sub- 
stitutes for Money. 175. English and Foreign Coins. 176. Paper 
Money. 177. Continental Money. 

Currency alter the Revolution. — 178. Constitutional Provisions. 
179. United States or Federal Money. 180. The Mint Established. 

Bimetallism. — 181. The Ratio between Gold and Silver. 182. Silver 
Coinage Discontinued. 18-3. The Bland Dollar. 184. The Silver 
Question. 

Banking System. — 185. The Bank of North America. 180. First 
United States Bank. 187. State Banks. 188. Second National 
Bank. 189. President Jackson and the United States Bank. 

190. President Van Buren and the Independent Treasury System. 

191. National Banks. 

Raising Revenue. — 192. Necessity of Revenue. 19-3. Hov? the Conti- 
nental Congress raised JNIoney. 194. The National Debt. 195. How 
Money is raised by the Government. 

The Tariff Question. — KM!. The First Tariff: a Tariff for Revenue. 
197. The American System : a Protective Tariff. 198. Opposition 
to the Tariff. 199. Nullification Act of South Carolina. 200. Tariff 
Legislation. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FINANCIAL HISTORY 
I. Money of Colonial and Revolutionary Times 

174. Barter and Substitutes for Money. — The early colonists 
suffered great inconvenience in conducting their business and 
commerce, owing to the scarcity of gold and silver coin. They 
were compelled to carry on a great deal of their everyday 
trade by means of the clumsy system of barter. The Indians 
used as money strings of beads or shells called wampum, and 
the colonists employed it in trading not only with the Indians, 
but also among themselves. Various other substitutes for 
money were employed. Thus some valuable staple production 
of a region would circulate there at its market value. In Vir- 
ginia, for example, tobacco was thus used. Farther north furs 
of different kinds became units of value. These expedients 
were better than mere barter, but we have only to imagine 
trying to transact our daily business in such fashion to realize 
how crude and inconvenient it must have been. Fortunately 
the colonists led simple lives, and their wants were few. It 
would be as impossible for people of our great cities to-day 
to conduct business by such primitive methods as it would 
be for them to live without other comforts and conveniences 
(railroads, steamboats, electrical appliances, etc.), which are 
essential features of modern civilization. 

175. English and Foreign Coins. — The little real money 
that circulated in colonial and Kevolutionary times consisted 
principally of English money and a great variety of foreigii 
coins, — Spanish, Dutch, etc. Some money was especially coined 
for the colonies by England, and some of the colonies coined 

99 



100 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

money for themselves. The most celebrated of these coins was 
the pine-tree shilling, made iu Massachusetts. The lack of a sin- 
gle system made exchange very troublesome. If a schoolmaster 
succeeded in getting his best scholars to understand " how to 
make change," he was doing very well. To make matters 
worse, the coins that were used principally in one part of the 
country had little circulation in other parts, and the rate of 




Pine-tree Shilling 

exchange had to be determined in all cases of intercolonial com- 
merce. In many places the Spanish milled dollar was the 
standard unit of value to which all others were reduced. 

176. Paper Money. — The colonists at times used paper money. 
So long as this was redeemable in coin, it generally circulated 
at or near its face value in the locality where it was issued. 
The paper money of one colony, however, was not always 
accepted in another, and seldom at par. A kind of money 
that would be understood by every one and be accepted every- 
where at its full face value was a great commercial need. The 
establishment of such a universal currency was not realized in 
the early history of our country. 

177. Continental Money. — During the Eevolution the Con- 
tinental Congress attempted to raise money by issuing printed 
bills of credit. This was called Continental money. As the 
government had no gold or silver to make good its promises 
to pay, the Continental money soon became almost worthless. 
English coins were still in circulation. The separate states 
also issued paper money of as little value as the Continental 



FINANCIAL HISTORY 



101 



money, with the additional disadvantage of variations in pur- 
chasing power in different states. English merchants carried 
off much of the coin left in the states, for they would not take 
the paper money. 

II. Currency after the Revolution 

178. Constitutional Provisions. — Under the Articles of Con- 
federation (1781-89) Congress had power to regulate the alloy 
and value of coin ; but the states, as well as Congress, had 




^ONt SIXTH OF A 
DOLLAR 



According 
to a Rejolu- 
tion of Con- 
ic R ESS, faf- 
fed at ?h\- 
ladelpKia, 




ebruary 17, 1776. B 



^One Sixth of a Dollar.^ 




)Printed by Hall & SeBersA 
^' in Philadelphia 1776. ^ 



Face UiK-k 

Reduced Specimen of Continental Currency 

poAver to coin money. The Constitution gave full charge of 
monetary matters into the hands of the Federal government. 
Congress was given '•' power to coin money, regulate the value 
thereof, and of foreign coin," and the states were expressly 
denied the power to " coin money, emit bills of credit, or make 
anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts." These constitutional provisions paved the wa}^ for the 
establishment of a Federal currency. Meanwhile the people 



102 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

were compelled to get along with the same mixture of foreign 
coins and paper money that they had used during the war. 

179. United States or Federal Money. — Robert Morris sug- 
gested an independent system of coinage for the United States. 
He proposed to render all money calculations simple and easy 
by use of a decimal system. Thomas Jefferson aided him in 
his plans, and suggested the dollar as the unit of value, because 
the people's familiarity with the Spanish dollar would make the 
change to the new system easier. The final outcome was the 
adoption of the decimal system in use at the present time. 

180. The Mint Established. — A mint was ordered by Con- 
gress to be established at Philadelphia in 1791, and in 1792 
the first coins were struck. The government conducted all its 
transactions on the basis of the new currency, and one by one 
the several states did the same. Foreign coins circulated, 
however, for many years, as the mint did not issue coins fast 
enough to meet the demand. The people became accustomed 
to the new system very gradually. Even after the foreign 
coins had entirely disappeared from circulation, some of the 
old terms — shilling, levy, fip, etc. — persisted in use. To-day, 
however, even these traces of the old state of things have 
passed away. 

III. Bimetallism 

181. The Ratio between Gold and Silver. — Gold, silver, and 
copper were used in making the new money. The fineness 
and weight of the coins, therefore, had to be carefully deter- 
mined in order that a dollar in gold might be equal in value 
to a silver dollar. The first silver coins made contained fifteen 
times as much pure silver as the same denomination in gold 
coins contained pure gold. This ratio was adopted because at 
that time gold was worth fifteen times as much as silver. The 
market value of gold and silver bullion, however, varied with 
the supply, causing the ratio between the two to change from 
time to time. In 1834 Congress reduced the amount of pure 
gold in the dollar, changing the ratio from 15 to 1 to 15.988 to 
1, or, as it was commonly called, " 16 to 1." Later changes in 



FINANCIAL HISTORY 103 

the market value of the two metals have not been met by Con- 
gress by changes in the size or purity of the coins. 

182. Silver Coinage Discontinued. — The gold discoveries in 
California and Australia made the actual value of silver dollars 
greater than that of the gold dollar. The former gradually 
passed out of circulation, and in 1873 Congress declared the 
silver dollar not a legal tender, and ceased to coin it. This was 
known as the '' Demonetization of Silver," 

183. The Bland Dollar. — Owing to the discovery of valu- 
able silver mines in the West, the price of silver began to 
decline. As there was a demand for more money in circula- 
tion, Congress passed the Bland Act (1878), reauthorizing the 
■coinage of a certain amount of silver into dollars. A still 
greater coinage of silver was later authorized by the Sherman 
Act (1890). This compelled the government to purchase 
4,500,000 ounces of silver monthly. The intrinsic value of 
silver meanwhile had fallen so low that a silver dollar was 
actually worth only about fifty cents in gold. It passed at its 
face value only because of faith in the government's intention 
-and ability to redeem it in gold. The purchase requirement 
of the Sherman Act was held to be in part responsible for the 
financial distress of 1893, and it was accordingly repealed by 
Congress after a long and bitter contest. President Cleveland 
having called an extra session of Congress for that purpose. 

184. The Silver Question. — The demand for "the free and 
unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the ratio of 16 to 1 " 
grew so strong in certain parts of the country that it became 
the great issue of the political compaign of 1896. The Repub- 
lican party opposed this demand. Some of the party, how- 
ever, believing in the necessity of free coinage, joined the 
Democrats. " Gold Democrats " nominated an independent 
ticket on a " gold standard platform." The result was a vic- 
tory for the Republican party. The Democrats made the free 
•coinage of silver one of the issues of the campaign of 1900, 
■and were again overwhelmingly defeated. Since that time the 
Tsilver question has ceased to be an issue. 



104 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

IV. Banking System 

185. The Bank of North America. — Robert Morris, a wealthy 
business man of Philadelphia, contributed greatly to the success 
of the Revolutionary War by his skilful management of the 
financial difficulties into which the country was thrown. (See 
§§70 and 73.) The Continental Congress, when its finances 
were at their lowest ebb, and its paper money practically worth- 
less, requested Morris to act as Superintendent of Finance. 
He succeeded in having the Hank of North America estab- 
lished (1781), and by drawing upon his own wealth and 
securing foreign loans, he materially relieved the desperate 
condition of affairs. Banks were also established in Boston 
and New York. 

186. The First United States Bank. — Alexander Hamilton, 
the first Secretary of the Treasury, aided Washington greatly 
in the difficult task of establishing a new government by his 
brilliant management of the financial problems which it had 
to face. He submitted to Congress a plan for a national bank, 
with a capital of $10,000,000. The bank was to be located in 
Philadelphia, and have branches in other cities. It was to be 
a private corporation, but to be chartered b}^ the United States, 
and was to receive the government money for deposit and dis- 
tribution. The government was also to be a shareholder in 
the bank. The bank was established in 1791, with a twenty- 
year charter. The bank bills which it issued were received 
by the government in payment for land, taxes, etc. They cir- 
culated all over the country at their face value and greatly 
facilitated business operations. The bank was closed (1811) 
on tlie expiration of its charter. 

187. State Banks. — There were only four state banks when 
the National Bank was established, but they multiplied rapidly 
after that date. When the National Hank lost its charter, they 
increased altogether too rapidly. During the War of 1812 
they were compelled to suspend " specie payment." This 
occasioned great business distress throughout the country. 



FINANCIAL HISTORY 105 

188. Second National Bank. — To remedy the financial dis- 
tress of the country Congress chartered (1816) a second Na- 
tional Bank with a capital of $35,000,000. It was very similar 
in plan to the first National Bank, and was known as the 
United States Bank. 

189. President Jackson and the United States Bank. — Presi- 
dent Jackson was strongly opposed to the United States Bank. 
He believed it to be badly managed and a possible source of 
political corruption. He succeeded in preventing a renewal of 
the charter, and ordered the government money to be removed 
from it and deposited in certain state banks. These became 
known as " pet banks." This killed the Bank, but led (as in 
1811) to the multiplication of small banks. They all issued 
paper money. There was a period of wild speculation fol- 
lowed by the great financial panic of 1837. 

190. President Van Buren and the Independent Treasury 
System. — The '•' pet banks " were regarded as the cause of the 
panic of 1837. Opinion was divided as to the remedy. Many 
thought a third National Bank should be chartered; but Presi- 
dent Van Buren believed that the government should create an 
independent treasury system, thus doing what it had never 
done before, viz., take entire charge of its money. An inde- 
pendent treasury was to be established in Washington with 
branches or subtreasuries in the leading cities. There were 
many objections raised by those who favored a United States 
Bank. The Treasury System, however, was established in 
1840. It was abolished in 1841, but reestablished in 1846, 
and has since been continued. 

191. National Banks. — A system of national banks was es- 
tablished in 1863. These banks were required to deposit United 
States bonds with the Treasurer at Washington. They could 
then issue notes to an amount equal to 90 % of the par value 
of these bonds. The bonds served as security for the notes 
issued, and thus the latter were guaranteed by the credit of 
the United States. Currency of state banks was taxed so 
heavily that it ceased to be profitable to issue it. jNIany of these 



106 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

banks, therefore, bought and deposited the bonds, thus becom- 
ing national banks. As the credit of the United States govern- 
ment became stronger, the bank notes increased in value, until 
they became "as good as, gold." This was largely due to the 
" resumption of specie payments " in 1879. In 1913 Congress 
completely reorganized its banking system. The Federal Re- 
serve Act was passed, dividing the United States into twelve 
districts, and establishing a Federal reserve bank in one city 
of each district. These banks receive deposits from and issue 
^' reserve notes " to other Imnks which have become members 
of the system. A more elastic currency is thus secured. The 
United States can also deposit its revenue in the reserve banks. 
The banking system of the United States is now on a firm 
basis, and no other country of the world has a stronger credit. 

V. Raising Revenue 

192. Necessity of Revenue. — The government of a nation 
cannot be conducted without money. The salaries and other 
expenses of the legislative, judicial, and executive depart- 
ments ; the maintenance of an army and navy " to provide for 
the common defence " ; and the many things that must be done 
" to promote the general welfare " of the country all involve 
heavy expenditures. Besides these running expenses there is 
generally a public or national debt on which interest must be 
paid mitil the debt itself can be cancelled. A government, 
therefore, must have the power to lay and collect taxes, for 
its very existence depends ujion it. The most important dif- 
ference between the government before and that after 1789 
was that the former had no power to enforce the collection of 
taxes, and the latter had this ]"»oAver expressly granted to it. 

193. How the Continental Congress raised Money. — The 
Continental Congress was forced to resort to all sorts of meas- 
ures to raise money to pay the expenses of the Revolutionary 
War. The states were called upon to contribute, but compara- 
tively little money was raised in this way. Congress was, 
therefore, obliged to issue paper money and certificates of 



FINANCIAL HISTORY 107 

various kinds. These were all " promises to pay " the face 
value of the bills ; but as the government had no gold or silver 
to redeem its promises, the Continental money soon became 
almost worthless — " not worth a Continental." Congress also 
borrowed about $12,000,000 from foreign nations. 

194. The National Debt. — The debts thus contracted by the 
Continental Congress, as well as those which the several states 
had incurred, were not repudiated by the new government 
under the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton proposed that 
interest-bearing bonds should be issued in exchange for the 
old debts. This was done, and the national debt thus formally 
acknowledged amounted in 1790 to $ 55,000,000. The assump- 
tion of this debt helped greatly to establish the credit of the 
United States on a firm basis. 

195. How Money is raised by the Government. — Money is 
raised by the government in two ways : (1) by taxation ; 
(2) by borrowing. 

Taxation. — The taxes imposed are of two kinds : direct 
and indirect. The sixteenth amendment to the Constitution 
(1913) gave Congress the power to tax incomes. Such direct 
taxes are now collected from corporations and from individ- 
uals, the rate depending upon the amount of the income. In- 
comes of less than $ .3000 are not taxed at all. Those above 
$ 3000 are taxed in proportion to the amount, the rate increas- 
ing somewhat with the size of the income. Customs (duties 
on imported goods) and internal taxes (upon goods manufac- 
tured within the country, principally upon liquors and tobacco) 
are two great sources of national revenue. These are indirect 
taxes, because while the importer or manufacturer pays the 
tax in the first place, the people afterward indirectly pay it in 
the higher price charged for the goods. 

Borrowing. — " To borrow money on the credit of the 
United States " is expressly stated in the Constitution as one 
of the powers of Congress. It is almost as necessary as " the 
power to lay and collect taxes." Ordinary expenses may be 
provided for by taxation, but for extraordinary expenses, such 



108 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

as those of war, Congress may be compelled to borrow. It 
may do this by selling interest-bearing bonds. These must 
be redeemed by the government at a specific time. Another 
way for Congress to borrow money is by issuing treasury 
notes. These notes circulate as money and maintain their par 
value as long as the people have faith in the ability of the 
government to redeem them in coin. 

VI. The Tariff Question 

196. The First Tariff : a Tariff for Revenue. — One of the 

first acts passed by Congress (178*J) was a tariff act, imposing 
duties upon imports. Custom houses were established and 
custom house officers appointed for the collection of this tax. 
This act was mainly for the purpose of raising revenue to carry 
on the government, although the protection of home industries 
was also one of its objects. 

197. The American System : a Protective Tariff. — The War 
of 1812, and the events whicli led up to it, liad so interfered with 
American commerce that the people were compelled to manu- 
facture many goods formerly purcliased from abroad. This 
gave a great impulse to manufacturing in the I'nited States, 
and many people thought that the government should encour- 
age and foster these " infant industries,"' as they were called. 
The method proposed was so to increase the price of imports, 
by imposing a high tariff, as to make it cheaper for Ameri- 
cans to buy articles of home manufacture. This high tariff' 
was called -a " protective tariff," because it was for the pur- 
pose of protecting American industries. It also became known 
as the American system. The first protective tariff act was 
passed in 1816. Other protective tariff acts were passed later, 
and the system continued until 1810. From that date until 
the Civil War, the protective duties were taken off, and only 
a small tariff for revenue Avas imposed. 

198. Opposition to the Tariff. — Tariff legislation had not 
been received without opposition. The North, which had 
become a great manufacturing district, was strongly in favor 



FINANCIAL HISTORY 109 

of a protective tariff. The South had no manufactures to pro- 
tect, and objected to the high prices which the tariff caused. 
The Southern planters demanded " free trade." Calhoun 
became the leader of the movement, and declared that the pro- 
tective tariff was not only unwise, but also unconstitutional. 
South Carolina threatened to secede if the tariff was enforced. 
So great was the opposition that Congress, largely through the 
influence of Henry Clay, changed the tariff in 1832 to make 
it less objectionable to the South. 

199. Nullification Act of South Carolina. — But the South still 
objected to the tariff, for they opposed the principle of jDrotec- 
tion. South Carolina declared the act " null and void," and 
refused to pay the duties. Though President Jackson did not 
favor protection himself, he insisted upon obedience to the 
laws of the United States, and prepared to collect the duties by 
force. (See § 212.) Through the efforts of Henry Clay, a 
compromise tariff act was passed in 1833, which provided for 
a gradual lowering of the duties. A " force bill " was also 
passed, giving the President power to compel the collection of 
duties. South Carolina repealed her nullification act, and 
danger of secession was temporarily averted. 

200. Tariff Legislation. — Other tariff acts were passed 
which gradually reduced the duties. From 1846 until 1861 
the tariff was practically " a tariff for revenue only." To help 
meet the enormous expenses of the Civil War, a high tariff was 
again imposed. This was practically a renewal of the protec- 
tive tariff, and ever since the Civil War the tariff problem 
has been one of the principal political questions. Almost all 
believe in the necessity of a tariff for revenue. Some think it 
should be for this purpose only. Others believe it should be 
high in order to protect and encourage American industries. 
Some favor absolute free trade, i.e. no tariff at all, believing 
this to be in the end for the advantage of all nations. The 
McKinley Tariff Act (1890) imposed high duties on foreign 
goods, to protect American manufactures against competition. 
The Wilson Bill (1894) reduced the tariff and opposed the 



110 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

principle of protection. The Dingley Act (1897) again imposed 
higher duties. This Act remained in force until 1909, when 
the Payne-Aldrich Bill was enacted by Congress. This bill 
effected a complete revision of the tariff schedules. Early in 
Wilson's first administration the Underwood Tariff" Act was 
passed by Congress, It reduced many rates and greatly ex- 
tended the free list. The diminution of revenue thus caused 
was to be compensated for by the new income tax which was 
authorized at the same time. 

A special Tariff Commission which had been authorized by 
Congress was appointed by President Taft, The reports of 
this Commission aided Congress considerably in tariff' legis- 
lation. Later Congress abolished the Commission, but under 
Wilson the law was reenacted and a new commission appointed 
by the President, The business interests of the country have 
suffered greatly from the frequent changes in tariff' schedules. 
The removal of the Avhole question from partisan politics 
would probably be a blessing to the nation. 



r : CHAPTER IX 

HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 

Introductory. — 201. Importance of the Subject. 

Interpretation of the Constitution and the Origin of Parties. — 

202. Supremacy of the Constitution. 203. Strict and Loose Con- 
struction. 204. Party Names. 20-5. Political Issues. 

The Federalists and Republicans (from Washington to John 
Q. Adams). — 20(5. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. 207. Party 
Contests Arise. 208. Party Organization : Republican and Feder- 
alist Opposition. 209. The First Political Contest for President. 
210. The Fall of the Federalist Party. 

Rise of the Democratic and Whig Parties. — 211. Split of the Re- 
publican Party. 212. Nullification. 213. Whig Successes. 

Slavery and the Civil War as Political Questions. — 214. Slavery 
becomes a Political Issue. 215. Decline of the Whig Party, 
216. Political Issues preceding the Civil War : Rise of the Republi- 
can Party. 217. Election of Lincoln. 218. Politics during the Civil 
War. 210. Reconstruction. 

Recent Political Issues. — 220. Democrats return to Power. 221. Ri.se 
of the People's Party : Currency becomes an Important Issue. 
222. Expansion becomes an Issue. 223. National Campaigns of 1912 
and 1916. 



Ill 



CHAPTER IX 

HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 
I. Introductory 

201. Importance of the Subject. — The character of our govern. 

ment leads its citizens to take a great interest in politics. Such 
political discussions too often degenerate into bitter quarrels, 
because there is no subject in which ignorance and prejudice 
are ujore conspicuous. Many people insist on voting year after 
year for the same political party without having any knowl- 
edge whatever of what the party stands for, or whetlier its 
principles and nominees are just and upright. Perhaps their 
real reason for casting their vote with a certain political party 
is merely that their fathers did so before them. This by itself 
is surely a very poor reason, for every American citizen ought 
to be independent and think and decide for himself. Parties 
change and conditions change ; and to have voted a certain 
way at some particular time in the past is by no means a 
reason for voting so now. In politics particularly the maxim 
should be borne in mind, " Be right to-day, though wrong 
yesterday." The American voter then should be thoughtful 
and honest, voting for principles and men considered by him to 
be the best. But he must also have sufficient knowledge to 
enable him to vote intelligently. He should be thoroughly ac- 
quainted with the history of his country, and especially with 
the various ideas of government held by its great statesmen. 
He will then not be dependent solely on newspaper reports 
and editorials, which are too frequently one-sided, but will be 
in a position to exercise independent judgment in casting his 
vote. 

112 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 113 



II. Interpretation of the Constitution and the Origin of Parties 

202. Supremacy of the Constitution. — All legitimate politi- 
cal parties, no matter how widely they have differed on various 
points, have agreed in regard to acknowledging the Constitu- 
tion as the supreme law of the land. There have been various 
attempts to amend the Constitution, and divergent views have 
always existed in regard to the powers it actually gives to the 
different departments of the government, but there has been 
no serious attempt to put it aside altogether. In fact, the Con- 
stitution has worked so admirably as the supreme law that 
even the Southern Confederacy when it set up an independent 
government, practically copied the Federal Constitution. So 
great has been the reverence in which the Constitution has 
been held by the most antagonistic political parties, that the 
bitterest criticism that one party could direct against another 
has been the accusation that its doctrines were unconstitutional. 

203. Strict and Loose Construction. — There were practically 
no political parties in this country prior to the constitutional 
convention (1787). This does not mean that all men had the 
same opinions in regard to the duties and powers of govern- 
ment, but their differences had not been brought out clearly 
enough to divide the people definitely into parties. This was 
even the case to some extent in the beginning of Washington's 
first administration. The real and fundamental distinction 
between parties has grown out of the interpretation of the 
Constitution. There were two opposing views : — 

(1) Many were in favor of a strong central government, 
whose officers should have power to rule the entire nation. 
Some of the extremists of this party were in favor of an execu- 
tive holding office for life, as in a monarchy. They thought 
that the powers of the separate states should be strictly limited, 
and that the national or Federal government should have almost 
complete authority. They held that it was the intention of 
the Constitution to bring about this state of affairs, and be- 
lieved in so interpreting that instrument as to give the Presi- 



114 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

dent, Congress, and Federal judiciary as large a measure of 
power as possible. They were perfectly sincere in their views, 
and hoped to avert a real danger of disunion by the application 
of their principles. The " rope of sand " of the confederation 
had served as an emphatic warning to them. On account of 
their liberal, broad, or loose way of interpreting the Constitution, 
so as to increase the power of the national government, they 
have been termed " loose Constructionists." 

(2) The other party held almost exactly opposite views. 
Many of them had originally been opposed to the Consti- 
tution, fearing that the rights of the states were not given 
enough consideration. (See § 93.) They had forced many com- 
promises on the other or national party in order to secure 
rights to the states and people. The first ten amendments, 
passed through their influence, were an expression of their 
feeling that individual liberty should not be abused or endan- 
gered. After the Constitution, in its finally compromised 
form, had been adopted, they insisted on a strict literal inter- 
pretation of its clauses so as to restrict as far as possible the 
powers of the general government. On this account they have 
been called " Strict Constructionists." 

204. Party Names. — These terms, " Strict and Loose Con- 
structionists," were never used as party names, but only as 
descriptions. The first Loose Constructionists were called Fed- 
eralists, and their opponents Anti-Federalists. Later the Strict 
Constructionist party adopted the name of " Democratic Repub- 
lican " and afterward simply '' Republican." This must not 
be confused with the Republican party of to-day, which is 
really a Loose Constructionist party. The Loose Construction- 
ists were for a time called " Whigs," and the Strict Construc- 
tionists eventually took the name of "Democrats," which is 
their designation to this day. The Loose Constructionist party 
of to-day is called Republican. It must not be supposed that 
the parties holding these opposing views never encroached on 
each other's territory. Neither people nor parties are always 
perfectly consistent, and we shall find in our study now and 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 115 

then Strict Constructionists holding some Loose Constructionist 
views, and vice versa. 

205. Political Issues. — Together with its nominations for 
the presidency, for Congress, etc., each party generally gives 
formal expression to its views on important subjects of the 
day, suggesting improvements, proposing new legislation and 
passing remedies for existing evils, discussing our relationship 
to foreign nations, or adverse criticism on the views of oppos- 
ing parties. The expression of these principles forms what is 
known as the party platform. It is supposed to give voters 
information as to what the party purposes to accomplish if it 
succeeds in winning the election. The issue may turn on a 
threatened war, as happened when Polk was elected, or on an 
attempt to improve the condition of the laboring class, giving 
rise to a Labor party ; or on the view that women as well as 
men should be allowed -to vote — the Woman Suffrage party ; 
or on government interference with the liquor traffic — the 
Prohibition party, etc. The main issues, however, which have 
divided the political parties have arisen from the opposing 
views of Strict and Loose Constructionists in regard to a pro- 
tective tariff, financial questions, internal improvements, and 
slavery. Military preparedness, industrial problems, prohibi- 
tion, and women sulf rage are assuming great prominence to-day 
as political issues. 

III. The Federalists and Republicans (from Washington to John 
Quincy Adams) 

206. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. — During Washing- 
ton's tirst administration, the opposing parties had not 
perfected anything like definite organizations. Although 
Washington himself had decided Federalist leanings, he re- 
ceived the unanimous vote of all the electors. He showed 
great tact and moderation in the selection of his cabinet. 
Alexander Hamilton, a Federalist, was made Secretary of the 
Treasury ; and General Henry Knox, also a Federalist, was 
made Secretary of War. John Jay, likewise a Federalist, was 



116 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

made Chief Justice. The Anti-Federalist party was recognized 
by the selection of Thomas Jefferson for Secretary of State, 
and Edmund Randolph for Attorney General. Washington 
displayed similar tact in harmonizing the opposing views of 
his advisers. By thus delaying sharp party contest, the Con- 
stitution was given a chance to show its real merits. 

207. Party Contests Arise. — The first important party contest 
in Congress grew out of the consideration of Hamilton's pro- 
posal that the Federal government should assume and pay the 
debts incurred by the states during the Revolution. (See § 98.) 
All the Anti-Federalists united in opposition to the measure, as 
they feared it would belittle the power of the states and give 
the " money power " permanently to the central government. 
It was finally adopted, however, through Hamilton's making a 
political bargain with some of the Anti-Federalists. Two other 
measures were adopted by Congress in spite of Anti-Federalist 
opposition. These were the bill establishing the United 
States Bank (see § 186), which created much bitter party 
feeling for about fifty years, and the " Excise Laws." (See § 
99.) In both these instances the Anti-Federalists contended 
that Congress was exceeding its constitutional authority. 

208. Party Organization: Republican and Federalist Oppo- 
sition. — Party organization began to appear in 1792, wliea 
all the opponents of the Federalists (they were no longer 
Anti-Federalists, strictly speaking, as they did not oppose the 
Federal Union) put aside minor differences and formed a 
party styled by Jefferson Democratic-Republican. It was sub- 
sequently called Republican, but its real successor to-day is 
what we call the Democratic party. The present Republican 
party is the successor of the old Federalists. The Democratic- 
Republican party of Washington's time was in hearty sym- 
pathy with the French Revolutionists, especially as these 
latter represented — although in an extreme way — the view 
of the absolute equality of men, a view of which Jefferson, as 
author of the Declaration of Independence and the leader of 
the Anti-Federalists, was a warm advocate. (See § 109.) Later, 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 117 

when France attempted to gain our aid against England, 
Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality, thus inviting 
the bitter denunciations of the Kepublicaus, as the Anti-Fed- 
eralists were now called. There were a number of party con- 
tests in Congress during Washington's administrations, the 
most important arising over Hamilton's financial proposals. 
The Eleventh Amendment adopted in 1798 in Adams's adminis- 
tratif)n was a Republican measure. 

209. The First Political Contest for President occurred at 
the end of Washington's administration. No nominations 
were made, but the Federalists voted for John Adams, and 
the Eepublicans for Thomas Jefferson. The present system of 
electing the President and Vice President had not been intro- 
duced at that time. The person receiving the highest number 
of votes, provided that number was a majority, was made 
President, and the person receiving the next number became 
Vice President. "The Federalists claimed support as the 
authors of the government, the friends of neutrality, jaeace, 
and prosperity, and the direct inheritors of Washington's policy. 
The Eepublicans claimed to be the friends of liberty and the 
rights of man, the advocates of economy and of the rights of 
the states, and refused to recognize their opponents as the 
inheritors of any policy but that of England." In the election 
which followed, John Adams was declared President and 
Thomas Jefferson, Vice President, the two highest officials of 
the nation being thus of opposite parties, a thing which could 
not occur to-day. Most of the jSTorthern states had chosen Fed- 
eralist electors, while the Southern states chose Republican. 

210. The Fall of the Federalist Party. — John Adams was 
the second and last Federalist President. The two measures 
which did more than anything else to bring about the fall of 
the party were the Alien and Sedition Laws. These laws 
were passed while the United States was on the verge of 
a war with France. (See § 110.) They gave the President 
power to banish or imprison foreigners, and imposed heavy fine 
or imprisonment on any one attacking the government's officials 



118 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

in a slanderous or malicious way. The Eepublieans regarded 
these laws as unconstitutional, as they were directly opposed 
to the First Amendment, which grants freedom of speech and 
of the press. The legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky 
passed resolutions (1798-9) protesting against the Alien and 
Sedition Laws as a usurpation of power by the Federal govern- 
ment, and maintaining that the states had the right to resist 
such unconstitutional acts of Congress. In the following 
presidential election (1800) Thomas Jefferson, a Republican, 
was elected President. He announced as the policy of the 
party the strict limitation of Federal powers and the careful 
guarding of state rights. In the election of 1804 Jefferson 
was reelected, the Federalists carrying only two states, — Con- 
necticut and Delaware. The final extinction of the Federal 
party was due to their opposition to the War of 1812. At the 
close of this war there was really but one party in the United 
States, whose principles, however, were a combination of those 
of the original Federal and Republican parties. So complete 
was the triumph of the Repiiblican party by 1820 that Monroe, 
a Republican, received 228 out of 229 electoral votes, just one 
short of a imanimous vote, 

IV. Rise of the Democratic and Whig Parties 

211. Split of the Republican Party. — Although there 
was now but one recognized party — the Republican — all 
the members of this party were by no means of one mind 
in regard to government policy. There were many under the 
leadership of Henry Clay who favored Loose Constructionist 
views, such as an increase of army and navy, a protective 
tariff, general public improvements at the expense of the 
nation, etc. They soon took as their party name that of 
National Republicans, and were afterward known as Whigs. 
They were really Federalists in almost everything except 
name. Their opponents, the Strict Constructionists, regarded 
these measures as either unconstitutional or unwise. As they 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 119 

united upon Jackson for their nominee, they were known as 
" Jackson Men," but later they took the party name of Demo- 
crats, which they retain to this day. The Southern faction of 
this party took a very extreme view in favor of state rights. 
They even went so far as to maintain the declaration of the 
Kentucky resolutions of 1799, that the states and the Federal 
government were parties to a compact, and that " nullification " 
was the rightful remedy when the Federal government over- 
stepped its constitutional authority. The passage of the pro- 
tective tariff of 1828 (see § 199), which was as objectionable to 
the South as it was satisfactory to the North, served to increase 
the feeling in favor of the doctrine of nullification in the South. 
In the election of 1828 the Democrats won a great victory 
over the National Republicans, Andrew Jackson being elected 
President. 

212. Nullification. — Although Jackson was a Democrat and 
a Strict Constructionist, he did not encourage the views of the 
extreme Southern faction of the party. The doctrine of nulli- 
fication (which became secession in 1860) had rapidly gained 
strength in the South. In the case of the Cherokee Indians, 
acts of Congress and supreme court decisions had been ignored 
by the state of Georgia. In 1832 a convention was held at 
Columbia, South Carolina, in which the tariffs of 1828 and 
1832 were formally declared to be " null, void, and no law, nor 
binding upon the State, its officers or citizens." The conven- 
tion also declared that any attempt at force would lead to the 
secession of South Carolina from the Union. President Jack- 
son, whose views had been well expressed by his voluntary 
toast, " The Federal Union, it must be preserved," at once is- 
sued a proclamation declaring his firm intention to enforce the 
laws of the United States. Naval vessels were ordered to 
Charleston harbor, and military protection furnished for the 
collectors of the tariff duties. South Carolina was thus forced 
to submit. 

213. Whig Successes. — By 1834 the National Republican 
party began to be called Whigs. In the election of 1836, 



120 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

although Van Buren, a Democrat, was elected President, the 
"Whigs polled a much larger vote than at the previous election. 
The Strict Constructionist views held by the Democratic Con- 
gress and President, prevented them from taking any steps to 
relieve the financial panic of 1837. (See § 189.) This brought 
them into disfavor, and many Democrats became Whigs. So 
greatly had the party grown by the election of 1840, that only 
two Northern and five Southern states chose Democratic elec- 
tors. The Whig candidates, Harrison and Tyler, were over- 
whelmingly successful. 

V. Slavery and the Civil "War as Political Questions 

214. Slavery becomes a Political Issue. — The National 
Anti-slavery Society had been formed in 1833. (See § 148.) 
It grew rapidly in the North. At first, sentiment, both in the 
North and in the South, was against agitation of the slavery 
question, as it was feared that it might lead to the disruption 
of the Union. The opponents of slavery were known as Aboli- 
tionists. The question of the annexation of Texas practically 
decided the election of 1844. This annexation was opposed by 
many because it was thought that it would lead to war with 
Mexico and an extension of slave territory. The Democrats 
nominated Polk, who was a warm advocate of annexation. 
The Whigs nominated Henry Clay. The contest, which was 
very close, resulted in the election of Polk, who had been nom- 
inated on a Strict Constructionist platform. In his message 
he advocated a tariff for revenue only, and discouraged all anti- 
slavery agitation. A new party, the Free-soilers, was now 
formed with a platform opposing slavery. The party con- 
sisted of the old Liberty party and many Democrats who were 
opposed to the extension of slavery. In the election which 
followed the Whigs were successful, Taylor and Fillmore 
being elected. 

215. Decline of the Whig Party. — P>oth the great parties, 
the Democratic and Whig, were afraid to take a positive stand 
against slavery, although there were many members of both 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 121 

pai'ties opposed to the institution. The Democrats who opposed 
slavery joined the Free-soil party, but their place was more 
than made up for by reenforcements from the Whigs, who 
were in favor of slavery. The Democratic party thus reen- 
forced became more and more pro-slavery. The AVhig losses, 
however, were not made up for, and the party declined in 
power until it was succeeded by an anti-slavery party in 
1855-56. The Democratic party being Strict Constructionists, 
naturally favored "squatter sovereignty " (see § 153), and held 
that the Constitution gave Congress no power to interfere 
with slavery in new territories. There was now an attempt 
made by the South to control the Democratic party. The 
actual fall of the Whig party was due to its advocacy of the 
Fugitive Slave Law, a part of the Compromise of 1850. (See 
§ 151.) In the election of 1852 only four states were carried by 
the Whigs, Fierce, the Democratic nominee, being elected by a 
large majority. The Free-soil Democrats had declared in 
their platform that slavery was a sin against God and a crime 
against man. 

216. Political Issues preceding the Civil War: Rise of the 
Republican Party. — The most important measure of Congress 
during Pierce's administration Avas the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 
which repudiated the Missouri Compromise and allowed each 
territory to decide for itself either in favor of or against 
slavery. The bill was opposed by the Northern Whigs, Free- 
soilers, and some of the Northern Democrats. The Southern 
Democrats and Whigs voted in favor of the bill. The North- 
ern Whigs now gave up the designation of Whigs and were 
known for a while as Anti-Nebraska men. Later, in 1856, 
they adopted the name Republican. They were in reality a 
Loose Constructionist party, agreeing with the Federalists and 
Whigs in favoring protective tariffs, and internal improvements, 
and especially advocating the principle that Congress had the 
right to control slavery in the territories. The Democrats, on 
the other hand, holding Strict Constructionist views, denied 
the right of Congress to interfere with slavery. On this all- 



122 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

important question they were in agreement with the Southern 
Whigs. In the election of 1856 the Democrats succeeded in 
electing Buchanan President, although the Republicans carried 
eleven states. 

217. The Election of Lincoln. — During Buchanan's admin- 
istration slavery became the all-important political question. 
The Dred Scott Decision (see § 155) caused great consternation 
and excitement in the North, and the people became more 
and more determined to resist the extension of slavery. The 
Democratic jSTominating Convention of 1860 split into two 
conventions, through the failure of the Northern and Southern 
wings of the party to come to an agreement. The Southern 
delegates held a separate convention, nominating for the presi- 
dency John C, Breckinridge, of Kentucky. The}' adopted a 
platform expressing the determination to carry slavery into 
the territories at any cost. The Republicans nominated Abra- 
ham Lincoln, on a platform declaring Loose Constructionist 
principles, and the determination to prevent slavery fi-om 
spreading to the territories. Lincoln was elected, and shortly 
after, several of the Southern states seceded from the Union, 
forming the Confederacy. Every free state except New Jersey 
had voted for the Republican electors. Almost all the South- 
ern states voted for Breckinridge electors. 

218. Politics during the Civil War. — President Buchanan, 
on account of his Strict Constructionist views, took no steps 
to force the seceded states back into the Union. Meanwhile, 
these states formed a government called the Confederate 
States of America. Its constitution was based on the United 
States Constitution, except that slavery was recognized and 
protective tariffs prohibited. ]\Iembers from the seceded states 
one by one withdrew from Congress, leaving that body with 
very large Republican majorities. Tariff bills for protection, 
not merely revenue, were passed, and bills whose purpose was 
to bring the war to a successful issue became law. Money 
was raised by issuing " greenbacks," a national paper currency. 
Later, the National Bank Act was passed, establishing banks 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 123 

which were to take the place of the state banks. (See § 191.) 
Both these financial measures resembled the financial policy 
of the Federalists and Whigs, who had favored the United 
States Bank. In 1864 the Republicans renominated Lincoln 
upon a platform declaring war upon slavery. The Democrats 
declared in their platform that hostilities should cease, thus 
indicating their belief that the war had been a failure. In all 
the Union states except three, Republican electors were chosen. 

219. Reconstruction. — After the close of the war, the ques- 
tion of the readmission of the Southern states became the most 
prominent political issue. (See §§ 171 and 172.) The Republi- 
cans held the Loose Constructionist view that Congress had 
the absolute right to determine the conditions upon which the 
seceded states could be readmitted. The Democrats took the 
opposite view, holding that the Southern states should im- 
mediately be given the full right of self-government. In the 
election of 1868, the Republicans were entirely successful and 
Grant was chosen President. For several years later, in fact 
up to the time of the election of Garfield (1880), the treatment 
of the Southern states and the enforcement of the last three 
amendments formed the main issues. The Democrats gen- 
erally favored lenient measures toward the South and the 
withdrawal of Federal interference, while the Republicans 
kept alive the issues of the Civil War, and insisted on main- 
taining the new rights of the freedmen. The currency and 
tariff questions also divided the parties. 

VI. Recent Political Issues 

220. Democrats return to Power. — In the election of 1884 
the tariff was the most important political issue. The Repub- 
licans favored protection. The Democrats, who had nominated 
Grover Cleveland, evaded the question of protection, but prom- 
ised a reduction of tariff duties. They also declared their 
intention to benefit the laboring classes by legislation control- 
ling corporations. (See § 319.) The Prohibition and Woman's 
Suffrage parties also made nominations for the presidency. 



124 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The National party adopted a platform which denounced mo- 
nopolies and demanded that money be made more plentiful. 
The contest was very close, resulting in the election of Cleve- 
land, the first Democratic President since Buchanan. 

221. Rise of the People's Party: Currency becomes an Im- 
portant Issue. — In 1891 the People's party (often known as 
Populists) was organized. It advocated legislation looking to 
the improvement of the farming and laboring classes, and 
recommended government control of railroads, telegraphs, etc. 
" The free and unlimited coinage of silver " for the purpose of 
increasing the currency was one of its principal doctrines. 
The election of 1892, however, again turned on the question 
of protection. The Democrats, favoring a tariff for revenue 
only, were overwhelmingly successful and elected Cleveland 
President. In 1896 the currency question became the most 
prominent issue. The Republicans again declared in favor of 
protection, but against free coinage of silver except by inter- 
national agreement. The Democratic platform, on the other 
hand, declared in favor of the free coinage of silver. The 
People's party indorsed the Democratic nominee for Presi- 
dent, William J. Bryan. Many Democrats, especially in the 
East, were opposed to the free coinage plank of the Demo- 
cratic platform and held a separate convention, declaring for 
a single gold standard of currency. In the election which 
followed, William McKinley, the Republican nominee, was 
successful. 

222. Republicans continue in Power. — The war witli Spain, 
which had occurred during Mr. McKinley's first administration, 
brought up another question, viz., our treatment of the posses- 
sions gained from Spain. The Democratic platform took 
exception to the so-called " Imperialistic " policy (see § 319) of 
the Republican administration. Many were opposed to the 
extension or expansion of United States territory by the acqui- 
sition of lands containing inhabitants so different from those 
of America, and feared that in governing these people without 
their consent, as in the case of the Philippine Islands, the 



HISTORY OF POLITICAL PARTIES 125 

United States was violating the principles of the Declaration 
of Independence. In the election of 1900 the Democrats 
endeavored to make imperialism the " paramount issue." 
However, as they renominated Mr. Bryan and reaffirmed the 
free coinage plank of the platform of 1896, they were over- 
whelmingly defeated by the Kepublicans, who reelected Mr. 
McKinley. In 1901, McKinley was assassinated and Theodore 
Roosevelt became President. He continued the policies of the 
McKinley administration. In the election of 1904 Koosevelt 
was nominated by the Republicans and Alton B. Parker by the 
Democrats. Although it Avas known that Parker favored a 
gold standard and was opposed to the free coinage ideas of 
Bryan, he was overwhelmingly defeated. At the close of 
Roosevelt's term, the Republicans nominated William H. Taft 
and the Democrats once more nominated Bryan. Taft was 
elected, Bryan suffering his third defeat. In both the elections 
of 1904 and 1908 there were few important differences in the 
platforms of the two parties. Both parties favored tariff 
revision, and governmental regulation of the trusts, the Demo- 
cratic platform being rather more radical in these respects than 
that of its rival. 

223. National Campaigns of 1912 and 1916. — In 1912, there 
was a bitter hght between Taft and Roosevelt for the Republi- 
can nomination, which was finally won by Taft. Roosevelt 
then became the nominee of a new party, known as the Pro- 
gressives. The latter were, for the most part, Republicans 
who were dissatisfied with the Taft administration. The 
Democrats nominated Woodrow Wilson, who received an over- 
whelming majority of the electoral vote. The Democratic vic- 
tories also gave them control of both Houses of Congress. 
Thus, after an interval of sixteen years, the Democratic party 
had again secured control of the Federal government. 

In 1916 the Progressives again failed to induce the Republi- 
can Convention to nominate Roosevelt. He was nominated by 
a separate Progressive Convention, but later withdrew in favor 
of the Republican nominee, Charles E. Hughes. The great 



126 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

European war furnished the most exciting issues of the cam- 
paign. It was urged by the Democrats that Wilson's diplomacy 
had kept the United States out of the war. Both candidates 
emphasized the need of true Americanism. The electoral vote 
was very close, and it was not until several days after the 
election that it was definitely ascertained that Wilson had 
been reelected. 



PAET IV 



GROWTH AND PROGRESS 

CHAPTER X 

Growth in Territory and Population 

Causes of Growth and Prosperity 129 

Acquisitions of Territory 131 

Population of tlie United States 134 



Immigration 

CHAPTER XI 

Progress in Science and th6 Useful Arts 

American Inventiveness. Labor-saving Machinery . 

Heating and Lighting 

Manufacturing and Building 

Agriculture 

Travel, Transportation, and Communication 

Warfare 

I'rinting .......... 

Medicine and Sui'gery 

Photography and the Phonograph 

Industrial Expositions 



139 



144 
145 

147 
148 
151 
157 
159 
160 
161 
161 



CHAPTER Xn 



Progress in Education 

Popular Education .......... 164 

Education in the Colonial Period 164 

other Means of Education . . . . . . . . . 169 

Education in the Republic 171 

CHAPTER XIII 

Growth of American Literature 



Origin and Growth of American Literature 

The Colonial Period 

The Revolutionary Period .... 
The Birth of American Literature 
Historians ....... 

CHAPTER XIV 

Problems of To-day and the Near Future 

Retrospect and Prospect .... 

Expansion . . . 

Arbitration and Peace .... 

Great Industrial Problems. Labor Troubles 
Social Legislation. Preparedness 
Civil Service Reform. City Government . 
Race Problems ...... 

The Temperance Question. Woman Suffrage 
Americanization of the Foreigner 

127 



176 
177 
178 
180 
186 



189 
190 
191 
194 
196 
198 
201 
202 
203 



CHAPTER X 
GROWTH IN TERRITOUY AND POPULATION 

Causes of Growth and Prosperity. — 224. One Hundred Years of 
I'rogress. 225. Natural Resouive.s. 226. Advantages of Geograph- 
ical Petition. 227. Free Government and Character of the People, 

Acquisitions of Territory. — 228. Louisiana Purchase. 229. Florida 
Purchase. 230. Oregon Boundary. 231. Itesults of these Acquisi- 
tions. 232. Texas-Mexican Cession: Gadsden Purchase. 233. Ala.ska 
Purchase. 234. Hawaii. 235. Spanish Cessions. 230. Samoa, 
Panama Canal Zone, Danish West Indies. 

Population of the United States. —237. The Census. 238. Growth 
of Population. 239. Tendency to City Life. 240. Centre of Popu- 
lation : Western Emigration. 241. Some of the Impulses to Western 
Expansion. 

Immigration. — 242. Growth of Population by Immigration. 243. Nation- 
ality of Immigrants. 244. Character of Early Immigrants. 245. Later 
Immigi'ants. 246. Problems of Immigration. 



128 




&.Jl^iTmJi>(ikMk'Xi 



CHAPTER X 

GROWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 
I. Causes of Growth and Prosperity 

Table of Territorial Acquisitions 



JJatk 


How Acquired 


Square Miles 


1783 


Treaty of Paris 


827,844 


1803 


Louisiana Purchase 


920,000 


1819 


Florida Purcliase 


59,268 


1845 


Annexation of Texas 


371,063 


1846 


Oregon Treaty 


255,000 


1848 


Mexican Cession 


522,568 


1853 


Gadsden Purcliase 


45,535 


1867 


Alaska Purchase 


577,390 


1898 ■■ 


Annexation of Hawaii 


6,449 




1" Philippines 


114,326 


1899 


Spanish Cession I Porto Rico 


3,550 




[ Guam 


210 


1900 


Samoa 


77 


1903 


Panama Canal Zone 


474 


1917 


Danish West Indies 


138 



224. One Hundred Years of Progress. — Since the attainment 
of independence by the treaty of peace, in 1783, the United 
States has increased in area to more than four times that in- 
cluded in the boundaries then determined, and its population 
in the same period has increased more than twenty fold. 
This rapid growth has been due to many causes. 

225. Natural Resources. — The natural resources of the new 
country were very great. The mountainous regions contained 
vast mineral wealth, — gold, silver, and less precious metals in 
the West ; inexhaustible iron mines, rich quarries, and coal 

129 



130 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

and oil fields in the East. The well-watered Atlantic and 
Pacific slopes and the Great Central Plain had such a variety of 
climate and such exceptionally good soil as to render possible 
an abundant vegetation. The enormous crops of some of the 
world's staples, such as wheat, corn, rice, sugar, cotton^ tobacco, 
which these regions have produced show how these possibilities 
have been realized. Vast forests also covered large areas of 
the country. Fur-bearing animals were plentiful, and great 
herds of bison roamed the plains. All these were valuable in 
the earlier history of the country, for food as well as for their 
hides and fur. The fur trade is no longer very important 
(except the seal fisheries of Alaska), but the great plains 
furnish pasture for hundreds of thousands of cattle, which have 
replaced the no4 almost extinct bison. The great abundance 
of fish — cod, shad, salmon, etc. — on the northern Atlantic 
coast, and of whales still farther north, was another important 
natural source oi wealth. 

226. Ad,vanta^es of Geographical Position. — The United 
Statcri lacked the magnificent roads which the older civiliza- 
tion of Europe epjoyed ; but its rivers afforded many miles of 
great natural highways which facilitated travel and commerce. 
Tliose not so readily navigable furnished cheap power .for 
manufacturing purposes. The irregularity of the Atlantic 
seaboard afforded numerous fine harbors. There were also a 
few good natural harbors upon the more regular Pacific coast. 
These and the position of America gave it unrivalled oppor- 
tunities for commerce with Europe on the one hand, and with 
Asia and Australia on the other. At the same time the broad 
expanse of ocean lessened the probability of war with foreign 
countries making it unnecessary for the United States to suffer 
the drain upon its resources that a large standing army entails. 

227. Free Government and Character of the People. — Hardly 
less important than the great natural advantages which the 
country offered for the development of a great nation, were 
the character of the people who settled the English colonies 
and the free form of government which they established. The 



GROWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 131 

French and Spanish had had similar opportunities in Amer- 
ica, but they failed to improve them. Both were brave and 
indefatigable explorers, and the French were industrious and 
successful fur traders, but they did not seem inclined to devote 
themselves to agriculture. Their colonies did not become in- 
dependent of France and Spain, but were ruled after the rather 
despotic fashion of the mother countries, enjoying little civil or 
religious liberty. 

The English colonists, on the contrary, were animated 
largely by the love of liberty. They cleared the forests, 
tilled the soil, and established homes. Having compara- 
tively little interference from the mother country, they devel- 
oped local governments which contained the best features of 
the English government and secured to them even greater 
liberties than were enjoyed by other British subjects. When 
these liberties were threatened, they fought for and gained 
their independence. With a political wisdom taught them by 
their early experiences, they framed a form of government in 
which the Federal and state powers were nicely balanced in a 
central government sufficiently strong to secure national unity. 
Sufficient independence, however, was given the states that 
each might develop in the way best suited to its conditions. 
Shortly after the new government went into operation, the tide 
of westward emigration began, and has continued until the 
present day. This emigration was the principal cause of that 
national expansion of area which is recorded in the table of 
purchases and other acquisitions of territory at the beginning 
of this chapter. 

II. Acquisitions of Territory 

228. Louisiana Purchase (1803). — The first acquisition of 
territory — the purchase of Louisiana — doubled the area of 
the United States. The control of the Mississippi was re- 
garded as so essential to the peace and welfare of the United 
States that envoys were sent to France to arrange for the 
purchase of New Orleans, which commanded the entrance to 



132 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the great -waterway. The envoys found Napoleon quite ready 
to sell the entire province of Louisiana, perhaps because he 
feared that in his impending war with England the territory 
would be lost to France. Hence they were able to make an 
unexpected bargain. Exceeding their instructions, they pur- 
chased the whole great domain of Louisiana for $15,000,000. 
The expedition of Lewis and Clark acquainted the people with 
some of the wonders and the value of this new territory. 

229. Florida Purchase (1819). — Spain governed Florida so 
poorly that a state of affairs bordering upon anarchy prevailed 
there. This led to difficulties with adjacent Southern states. 
Jackson, who was sent to quell the disturbance, exceeded his 
authority and practically took possession of Florida. Spain 
being unable to prevent this, and finding Florida such a trouble- 
some possession, agreed to sell it for $5,000,000. Thus another 
menace to the peace of the United States was removed. 

230. Oregon Boundary (1846). — The claims of Great Britain 
and the United States to the Oregon country overlapped, but 
did not give rise to trouble until the immigration of settlers 
rendered decision of the question imperative. Serious trouble 
was threatened for a time, but fortunately a compromise 
boundary was settled by treaty. (See §§ 116-119.) 

231. Results of these Acquisitions. — The Louisiana and 
Florida purchases, and the Oregon treaty, not only secured to 
the United States great areas of new territory, but removed 
the possibility of dangerous rivalry from France and Spain on 
American soil, and settled peaceably with a more formidable 
country — England — a very troublesome boundary question. 

232. Texas-Mexican Cession : Gadsden Purchase. — These 
great territorial acquisitions resulted from the migration of 
settlers from the United States into the territory of ]\Iexico, 
known as Texas. Outnumbering the Mexicans and being dis- 
satisfied with the government, they revolted and obtained inde- 
pendence in 1836. Texas applied for admission into the Union 
in 1837. The question of its annexation became of great politi- 
cal importance, owing to its bearing upon the extension of 



GROWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 133 

slavery. Texas was finally admitted in 1845. Mexico and 
Texas disagreed upon the question of boundary, and the United 
States entered into war with Mexico in support of the Texas 
claim. (See §§ 119-124.) The complete defeat of the Mexi- 
cans resulted in a treaty (1848) very advantageous to the 
United States. The claim of Texas, making the Eio Grande 
the boundary, was allowed. California and New Mexico were 
ceded to the United States, and Mexico was paid $ 15,000,000. 
An additional $ 10,000,000 was afterward paid (1853) in fur- 
ther settlement of a boundary dispute with Mexico. This was 
known as the Gadsden Purchase. 

233. Alaska Purchase (1867). — The United States paid 
Russia $ 7,200,000 for the Alaskan territory. There was some 
opposition to the purchase, but it was soon found to be a valu- 
able possession on account of its furs, fisheries, timber, and 
gold. The discovery of gold led to a boundary dis^Dute with 
Canada, which Avas finally settled by an arbitration commission 
appointed by the United States and Great Britain. 

234. Hawaii (1898). — In 1893 some white residents of 
Hawaii revolted against the native queen, Liliuokalani. They 
established a government of their own, and asked for annex- 
ation to the United States. Immediate annexation, however, 
was ■ prevented by the action of President Cleveland. Later, 
during the Spanish-American War, the acquisition of the islands 
Avas agreed upon by Congress and by President INIcKinley. 

235. Spanish Cessions (1899). — One of the results of the 
Spanish-American War was an important acquisition of terri- 
tory. (See §§ 129-130.) By the treaty of Paris, Porto Eico and 
other Spanish West Indies, and Guam, one of the Ladrones, 
were ceded to this country. Spain received S 20,000,000 for 
the Philippine archipelago, and it was further agreed that Cuba 
should undertake self-government under the protection of the 
United States. Thus Spanish authority was banished from 
the Western Hemisphere, and the United States undertook the 
difficult task of establishing order in the colonies which had 
suffered from Spanish misrule. 



134 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



236. Samoa, Panama Canal Zone, Danish West Indies. — 

Part of the Samoau group of small islands was acquired by a 
treaty with Great Britain and Germany in 1900. These islands 
are about 77 square miles in area. 

Shortly after the refusal of Colombia to agree to the terms 
offered by the United States for the purchase of the Panama 
Canal Zone in 1903, the independence of Panama, which had 
revolted, was recognized by President Eoosevelt. The new 
republic quickly made a treaty, granting to the United States 
the desired strip of land. 

In 1917, the Danish West Indies, a small group of islands east 
of Porto Rico, were purchased from Denmark for $ 25,000,000. 
The islands have an area of about 138 square miles. Their 
possession by the United States was regarded as important 
because they lie in the region of the Panama Canal. These 
islands have some good harbors and could be utilized as a naval 
base for the safeguarding of that important waterAvay. 

III. Population of the United States 



Census 


Population 


Cities 

OVKR 

8000 


CiTT Life 
Per Cent 


Centre of Population close to 
89th Parallel 


Wesiern 
Movem't, 

M I i.es 


1790 


3,929,214 


6 


3.3 


Near Baltimore (east of it) 




1800 


5,308,483 


6 


3.9 


Near Baltimore (we.st of it) 


41 


1810 


7,239,881 


11 


4.9 


N. W. of Wasliington, D.C. 


36 


1820 


9,633,822 


13 


4.9 


Near Woodstock, Va. 


50 


1830 


12,866,020 


26 


6.7 


Near Moorefiekl, W. Va. 


39 


1840 


17,069,453 


44 


8.5 


Near Clarksburg, W. Va. 


55 


1850 


23,191.876 


85 


12.5 


Near Parkersburg, W. Va. 


55 


1860 


31,443.321 


141 


16.1 


Near Chillicotlie, 0. 


81 


1870 


38,558,371 


226 


20.9 


Near Cincinnati (east of it) 


42 


1880 


50,155,783 


286 


22.5 


Near Cincinnati (west of it) 


58 


1890 


62,947,714 


449 


29.1 


Near Greensburg, Ind. 


48 


1900 


76,994,575 


556 


33.1 


Near Columbus, Ind. 


14 


1910 


91.972,266 


779 


.38.9 


Near Bloomington, Ind. 


39 


1916 


102,017,312 


779 


40.9 







GKOWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 



135 



237. The Census. — The Constitution provides (Article I, Sec- 
tion 2, Clause 3) for a taking of the census every ten years. 
The first census was made in 1790, and the thirteenth census 
was taken in 1910. This census shows the total population 
of the United States to be 91,972,266. These figures do 
not include the population of the Philippines, Guam, Samoa, 
and the Canal Zone. The estimated population for these pos- 
sessions brings the total to more than 101,000,000. Much 
more information than that given by, the mere countpg of the 




■■^ Population in places of 8,000 or more 
Kifef.-.i! Population outside such places 



* Estimated as' of July 1, 1916 

Total Population of the United States and Proportion in Places 
WITH 8000 OR More Inhabitants, 1790 to 1916 

number of people is obtained. A great many facts, such as 
the age, sex, color, education, occupation, etc., of each person, 
are noted by the census taker, as are also various data con- 
cerning the manufactures, commerce, etc., of the country. The 
Census Bureau is an important government department, and is 
kept at work during the ten years' interval after each census, 
arranging and putting in suitable form the information that 
has been gathered. 

238. Growth of Population. — The table shows clearly that 
the increase in population of the United States has more than 
kept pace with its increase in area. While by accessions of 
territory the country has been enlarged to about four times its 



136 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



original area, the number of inhabitants has grown to about 
twenty times the number at the close of the Revolution. The 
population has doubled about every twenty -hve years. 

239. Tendency to City Life. — In the colonial period the 
cities held a comparatively small proportion of the population. 
Southern plantation life did not favor the growth of cities, and 
even in the New England colonies, where town life was most 



45 



35 



^30 
o 

S 
o 

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35 S 



20. 



10 (S 



ib;io 



1S50 
Year 



1S70 



1910 1916 



Per Cent of Population in Places with 8000 or More Ixiiaiutants 
AT each Census, 1790 to 1916 

marked, the country population was very much larger than that 
of the cities. As manufacturing and commerce developed, how- 
ever, the urban population increased at a much greater rate than 
the country population. The census table shows that in 1790 
and 1800 there were only six cities having a population of eight 
thousand or more, and that only a little more than three per 
cent of the entire population of the country was to be found in 
its cities, while the census of 1910 shows that there were 779 
cities of that size and that 38.9 per cent of the people were living 
in towns and cities. A careful estimate by the Census Bureau 
indicates that in 1916 this per cent has increased to 40.9. One 



GROWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 



137 



of the many causes which helped to bring about this result was 
the invention of labor-saving agricultural machinery. (See 
§ 253.) With the aid of modern implements, a comparatively 
small number of men can operate successfully great farms that 
would formerly have required very many " hands." 

Cities are not evenly distributed over all parts of the country. 
Manufacturing and commerce are such very important indus- 
tries in the Northern states that the people tind it advanta- 
geous to live in great communities. In the New England 




The Westward Movement of the Centre of Population 

and Middle Atlantic states more than two-thirds of the inhab- 
itants are city residents. The Western states are rapidly 
developing their manufacturing and commercial industries. 
These occupations, together with that of mining, have tended 
to build up the AVestern cities at a marvellous rate, and now 
more than one-fourth of the Western people are classed as 
urban. The Southern states, on the other hand, are devoted 
principally to agriculture. This does not encourage the growth 
of cities, and we hnd that the urban population of the South 
Atlantic states is more than one-hfth, and that of the South 
Central states is only one-sixth of their total number of 
inhabitants. 

240. Centre of Population : Western Emigration. — If we 
imagine the United States to be a great plane, and each of its 
inhabitants to be of equal weight, the point at which the plane 
would have to be supported in order that it might be evenly 



138 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



balanced is called the centre of population. The centre of 
population is determined by a very complicated calculation, 
which is one of the labors of the Census Bureau. The census 
table shows that the centre of population has been travelling 




The Westward Movement of Population 



steadily toward the West. This shifting of the centre of popula- 
tion has been due to the rapid settlement of the West by hardy 
and courageous emigrants from the Eastern states and Europe. 
Daniel Boone was a great pioneer of this Avestward movement, 
leading the way into Kentucky before the Revolution (1769). 
Later, other emigrants made many settlements in the valley of 



GROWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 



139 



the Ohio. Some made their way to the region bordering on the 
Great Lakes. People of the Southern states emigrated to 
Mexican territory. This was the hrst of the long series of 
events which resulted in the acquisition of Texas. The courage 
and enterprise of some of the pioneers carried them all the way 
to the Pacific, and the occupation of Oregon by both British 
and American settlers led to the Oregon treaty, by which 
another vast area became part of the United States. 

241. Some of the Impulses to Western Expansion. — This 
tendency to Western expansion received a great impulse after 
the close of the War of 1812. (See § 108.) " The era of good 
feeling " was at hand, and the country was prosperous. Much 
attention was bestowed upon internal improvements. Koads 
and canals were built (the Erie Canal was finished in 1825), 
and the steamboat (invented in 1807) was to be found upon 
all the navigable rivers. After 1835 steam railroads be- 
gan to be employed. These improvements in travel and 
communication made possible the unprecedented growth of 
the West. 

An exceedingly important event in the history of the West 
was the discovery of gold in California in 1848. The quick 
growth of San Francisco and the rapid population of the 
country (admitted as a state 1850) is a wonderful story of 
adventure and enterprise. 



IV. Immigration 
Tahle of Immigration 



1821-30 


143,439 


1871-80 


. 2,812,101 


1831-40 


699,125 


1881-90 


. 5,246,613 


1841-50 


. 1,713,251 


1891-1900 . 


. 3,844,420 


1851-60 


. 2,598,214 


1901-1910 . 


. 8,795,386 


18(il-70 


. 2,314,824 


1911-1910 . 


. 4,757,831 



242. Growth of Population by Immigration. — The great 
opportunities offered by this country have attracted millions 
of foreigners to its shores, so that immigration has been a 
very important factor in the rapid increase of population that 



140 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



has taken place. In the early history of the United States the 
volume of immigration was not large, but since 1840 it has 
grown rapidly, that of every decade (except 1861-70, Avhich 
included the Civil War) surpassing the previous one. The 
recorded immigration of the last one hundred years reached 
the enormous total of more than thirty-two millions. 

243. Nationality of Immigrants. — The countries of north- 
western Europe have contributed about one-half, the countries 



1,000,0"' 
B0< 1,11)0 

son.noo 

700.000 
000,000 
BOO.OOU 
400,000 
300,000 
20n,rY«l 
100,000 

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How THE XUMISER OF IMMIGRANTS HAS VaRIEI) FliOM YEAR TO YkaR 

of southeastern Europe more than one-third, of the total 
foreign-born population of the United States. ^Nlore than one- 
tenth of our foreign-born population is composed of natives of 
American countries outside of the United States. The re- 
mainder is composed of people from almost every other part 
of the world. At first Ireland furnished by far the greatest 
number of immigrants. Later the (xermans came in such 
numbers as to head the list. Kecent years have seen great 
changes in the character of the immigration. That from 



GROWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 141 

Ireland and Germany has decreased, while a rapid increase has 
taken place in the immigration of Swedes, Norwegians, Hun- 
garians, Poles, Russians, and Italians. 

244. Character of Early Immigrants. Until comparatively 
recent years the tide of immigration furnished in the main a 
really desirable class of people, who wished to make homes for 
themselves in this country and become its citizens. Most of 
them were farmers or skilled laborers. They were thrifty, 
industrious, and ambitious to make the most of the opportuni- 
ties offered in the New World, and' they contributed in turn to 
its growth and prosperity. They learned to understand and 
appreciate the institutions of their adopted country, and be- 
came loyal and useful citizens. Their tendency was to settle 
in the West, Hence we find the Western states having a large 
proportion (about one-quarter) of their total population foreign 
born. The South, on the other hand, has been called the home 
of the native American, because of its freedom from the ad- 
mixture of the foreign element. 

245. Later Immigrants. — In proportion as immigration in- 
creased in quantity, it decreased in quality. Instead of thrifty 
farmers and industrious and skilled artisans, thousands of 
unskilled laborers, to say nothing of the pauper and criminal 
classes, sought the shores of the United States. These did 
not push to the open country of the West, but as a rule re- 
mained in the great cities, adding a very undesirable and even 
dangerous element to the nation's population. 

246. Problems of Immigration. — Owing to the change in 
the character of the immigration, the problem of its restriction 
and regulation has arisen. The flocking of Chinese to the 
Pacific states led to the passage of Chinese Exclusion Laws. 
The importation of cheap labor from abroad under contract to 
American employers has resulted in the passage by Congress 
of a Contract Labor Law, prohil)iting the practice. Paupers 
and criminals, so far as possible, are sent back to the coun- 
try from which they came. It is thought by many that the 
immigration laws should be stricter than they are, that some 



142 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

educational qualification, for example, should be demanded of 
all immigrants, and that all who do not intend to become citi- 
zens should be excluded. An immigration act passed by Con- 
gress during Cleveland's administration was vetoed by him 
because it contained the provision that immigrants unable to 
read and write should be denied admission to this country. 
President Taft also vetoed a similar act and President Wilson 
vetoed two such measures because they contained the literacy 
test. Congress, however, passed the last measure over the 
President's veto, and it is now a law. 

The framing of wise immigration laws and their proper 
enforcement are questions not easily solved. The public 
schools accomplish a great deal toward making the children of 
foreign descent good citizens of the country adopted by their 
parents. The study of United States history helps to acquaint 
them with the nature and spirit of our republican institutions. 
The exclusive use of the English language in our public schools 
furnishes an important bond of union for the diverse national- 
ities which constitute so large a part of our population. 



CHAPTER XI 
PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 

American Enterprise and Inventiveness. — 247. Patents. 

Labor-saving Machinery. — 248. Steaui, Electricity, Factories, Divi- 
sion of Labor. 

Heating. — 249. Open Fireplace, Franklin Stove, Hot-air Furnace, Gas 
Range, Wood, Coal, Hot Water, Steam, Electricity. 

Lighting. — 250. Open Fireplace, Candles, Whale Oil, Flint and Tinder, 
Matches, Gas, Petroleum, Electricity. 

Manufacturing. — 2-31. Hand Work of Colonial Days. Steam and 
Electrical Machinery of To-day. 

Building. — 252. Concrete. Sky-scrapers. Fire-proofing. 

Agriculture. — 25o. Hand Farming and Crude Implements of Colonial 
Days. Improved Machinery of To-day — Whitney's Cotton Gin, 
JMcCormick's Reaping Machine, Grain Elevator, Canning and Pre- 
serving, Hothouse Cultivation, Cold Storage. 

Travel and Transportation. — 254. Horseback, Stage Coach, Canal 
Boat, Sailing Vessels of Colonial Days. Locomotive, Trolley, 
Bicycle. Automobile, Steamship, Aerial Navigation of To-day. 

Communication. — 255. Slow Mails, Special Couriers of Colonial Days. 
Fast Postal Service, Telegraph, Submarine Cable, Telephone, Wire- 
' less Telegraphy of To-day. 

"Warfare. — 250. Primitive Weapons, Wooden Battleships of Colonial 
Days. Improved Guns, Ammunition, Steel-clad Battleships of 
To-day. 

Printing. — 257. Hand Press of Colonial Days. Improved Steam Press 
of T(i-day. Reduction in Cost of Literature. 

Medicine and Surgery. — 258. Primitive Methods of Colonial Times: 
Blee<ling. Modern Improvements and Discoveries : Anaesthetics, 
Antiseptics, X-rays. 

Photography and the Phonograph. — 2-50. Camera. Motion Picture. 
Dictaphone. 

Industrial Expositions. — 200. Centennial Exposition, 1876; Colum- 
bian Exposition, 1893 ; Pan-American Exposition, 1901 ; Panama- 
Pacific Exhibition, 1915. 



143 



CHAPTER XI 

PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 

247. American Enterprise and Inventiveness. — One of the 

most striking characteristics of the American people is 
" inventiveness." Not only has the American mind been fer- 
tile in devising new methods and instruments, it has also been 
quick to adopt and improve upon the inventions of other 
nations. We live to-day in a world of conveniences, of which 
the people of a hundred years ago could form no conception. 
There have been various causes for this marvellous change 
in addition to the enterprise and ingenuity of Americans. 
In the new country there were immense resources which 
had to be developed. The original settlers of the Atlantic 
coast, and later those who pushed across the Alleghanies, 
had to make their roads and houses, and build their cities. 
They were thus thrown on their own resources. "Necessity 
is the mother of invention." 

Later, when the Constitution was adopted, Congress gave a 
great impetus to discovery and invention by securing to the 
inventors themselves the profits of their labors. "Patents 
are issued by the Patent Office at Washington, giving the 
inventor of any new and useful machine, instrument, manu- 
facture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful 
improvement of them, the monopoly in their manufacture and 
sale for the term of seventeen years." More than half a mill- 
ion patents have been granted within the last sixty years, 
and the number issued per year is constantly increasing. 

248. Labor-saving Machinery. — The most important result 
of this inventive activity has been the substitution of 

144 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 145 

machinery run by steam or electricity for manual labor. 
Such machinery enables one man to accomplish the work of 
hundreds of hand laborers. This machine work is conducted 
upon an extensive scale, and has given rise to factories, employ- 
ing thousands of men. Division of labor is thus rendered pos- 
sible, and the work is done more economically. This lessens 
the cost of the articles manufactured, thus bringing them 
within the reach of the poorer classes. The laboring man of 
to-day enjoys luxuries which were not obtainable even by the 
rich of colonial days. We will obtain a clearer idea of this 
progress, by comparing some of the methods and instruments 
of colonial days with those of to-day. 

249. Heating. — In colonial days, stoves were rarely or 
never seen. The Franklin stove, invented by Benjamin 
Franklin, was one of the earliest. In most houses there was 
a large open fireplace, which, while it was cheerful and pictur- 
esque, was really an unsatisfactory means of heating. Cooking 
was performed over these fireplaces. "Wood was used almost 
exclusively for fuel. Later, soft and hard coal were used, the 
latter, known as anthracite, having been discovered in Penn- 
sylvania in 1790. The first load was brought to Philadelphia 
in 1803. For a Avhile it was considered too hard to burn, but 
it has since become our principal article of fuel. The houses 
of to-day show great improvements in means of heating. 
Modern improved stoves, burning coal, have taken the place 
of the old fireplace, though the latter is sometimes used for its 
quaint and picturesque effect. Many houses are heated by 
furnaces, placed in the basement, sending hot air through 
asbestos-covered pipes to all parts of the building. The cook- 
ing is no longer done by means of stoves, which also heat the 
house, but separate cooking-stoves or ranges have been 
invented. The modern ones contain ovens and other conven- 
ient appurtenances, such as boilers supplying hot wafer to 
various parts of the house. Oil and gas are largely used to-day 
for both heating and cooking, as they are found to be economi- 
cal and satisfactory. Large buildings, such as schools, churches 



146 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

and theatres are generally heated by steam or hot water, cir- 
culated in pipes through the various parts of the building. 
These improved methods of heating are superseding the hot 
air furnaces in many modern dwellings. Electricity has also 
been used recently for heating purposes, particularly in elec- 
trically propelled or trolley cars. Electrical cooking ranges 
are employed in some large estal)lishments. 

250. Lighting. — When we consider that gas and electricity — 
our two chief means of lighting to-day — were unknown in colo- 
nial days, we can easily imagine how dark the streets and 
houses must have been at night. The blazing logs in the 
open fireplace supplied most of the light on winter nights. 
Candles, and lamps burning whale oil, were also used. 
There were no matches, and fire 
was obtained by striking flint 
against steel, and igniting some 
combustible material with the 
spark. The petroleum oils, which 
are so largely used to-day for light- 
ing, heating, and oiling machinery, 

were unknown in colonial days. 

-r, ^ , T 1 . ^o~/' Tinder Box, Flint, AND Steel 

Petroleum was discovered in loob, 

in northwest Pennsylvania. Numerous wells have since been 
opened in Pennsylvania and neighboring states, so that the 
output of oil to-day amounts to thousands of barrels daily. 
The manufacture and use of gas was a European discovery, 
but it rapidly became a popular necessity in America, where 
it was introduced early in the nineteenth century. INIodern 
improvements, such as portable gas lamps, incandescent 
burners, etc., have added greatly to its value. Many old 
people living to-day can remember the time before gas lamps 
were used to light the streets, while the men and women of 
the next generation will probably find it hard to remember 
street gas lamps, so completely has electricity taken the place 
of gas for street illumination. There have been such wonder- 
ful improvements in the employment of electricity for illumi- 




PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 147 




Hakgkeaves's Spinning-Jenny 



nating purposes that the electric light to-day is fast becoming 
universal. 

251. Manufacturing. — The use of steam and electricity as 
motive power may be said to have revolutionized all forms of 
manufacturing. In colonial days spinning and weaving were 
done by hand. The people wore clothes made of stout home- 
spun material, and the spin- 
ning-wheel was a necessary 
article in every household. 
Spinning and sewing were 
important feminine accom- 
plishments. To-day spin- 
ning and weaving are per- 
formed by machinery, steam 
or electricity supplying the 
power. Large mills have 
been built which give em- 
ployment to hundreds of 

" hands." These improvements began as early as 1764 with 
Hargreaves' spinning-jenny. In colonial days sewing Avas 
done entirely by hand. 8o greatly have the sewing-machines 
(invented by Elias Howe in 18-45) been improved and cheapened, 
that to-day almost every household contains one. In factories, 
sewing-machines are driven by steam or electric motors. 

252. Building. — The art of building has had a remarkable 
development since Colonial days. This progress has been 
made possible by the marvellous advance in methods of con- 
struction and engineering. Recent improvements in the manu- 
facture of concrete — a mixture of cement, sand, and broken 
stones — have resulted in a wide application of this invaluable 
product. Its value as building material is due to the fact that 
it readily changes from a soft plastic condition to the firmness 
of hard rock. Concrete is cheaper than ordinary stone or brick, 
and is especially good for laying foundations in damp soil as 
it may be made impervious to water. For this reason it forms 
an excellent material for submerged piers supporting bridges. 



148 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 








^w. 



y'l, 



Tall buildings, sometimes called sky-scrapers, have multiplied 
rapidly, especially in the large cities of the United States. 

Their framework consists 
mainly of steel and concrete. 
The stone, brick or other 
material -whicdi forms the 
ornamental outside of the 
building may be regarded 
as a kind of skin or cover- 
ing, not resting upon the 
main foundations. The steel 
columns and girders are 
trimmed and punched at the 
factories so that they can be 
put in place quickly at the 
building o})erations. This is 
accomplished by means of 
powerful steam and electric 
cranes. The Aveight of these 
sky-scrapers is so enormous 
that it is foimd desirable to 
dig to considerable depths 
for rock bottom foundations. 
The highest building in the world is the lifty-live-story Wool- 
worth building, 775 feet high, in New York city. It is fre- 
quently referred to as the " Cathedral of Commerce." Its 
weight is estimated at about 125,000 tons, and it was necessary 
to dig 110 feet below the sidewalk level for its rock foundation. 
The construction of these enormous buildings, some of them 
containing over 10.000 tenants, has directed attention to the 
necessity of fire-proofing. Unprotected steel is easily affected 
by intense heat. The columns, girders, etc., are generally pro- 
tected by enclosing them in concrete, hollow tile, or brick. 
Sometimes they are coated with a kind of cement gum. Prac- 
tically no wood is used in the construction of stairways, 
window trim, etc. Elevator doors are protected by wired 



IJJtilrilMIMl' "J^^SjUJ »^(i 




WooLWORTH Building, New York 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 149 




glass. The main idea in all these precautious is to prevent fire 
from spreading from room to room or from floor to floor. Not 
only sky-scrapers, but all buildings such as schools and theatres, 
where large numbers of persons assemble, are now being con- 
structed with a view to fire prevention. Fire escapes and 
various means of fighting fire are also required in all such 
buildings. 

253. Agriculture. — Farming has also been greatly improved 
by numerous inventions. In colonial days agriculture was a 
laborious occupation. The farming implements were rough 
and clumsy. Iron being scarce, they were, for the most part, 
made of wood. Wooden plows covered by plates of iron were 
used. Raking, sowing, reaping, gathering, and threshing Avere 
all done by hand. Extensive 
farming, such as is now carried 
on in the Central and Western 
states, would have been impos- 
sible under those primitive con- 
ditions. One of the earliest and 
most important inventions was 
Whitney's cotton gin (1793). 
Previous to this invention there 
had been but little cotton raised 
in the South, as no practical)le 
method had been devised for 
separating the cotton wool or 
fibre from the seeds. So much 
labor was required for this o])- 
eration that cotton was a very 
expensive article used only 
])y the rich. By means of 
AVhitney's invention, one man 
was enabled to do what before would have required a thou- 
sand. Cotton-growing immediately became a most important 
industry of the South. iNFany cotton mills were established 
in the North, and our export trade increased. 




Cotton (tin 
Tlic upper figure shows Whitney's in- 
vention. The lower figure 
form. 



shows a later 



150 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 







Some ten years before this, the grain elevator had been 
invented and various improvements were made in milling 
flour. One of the most important agricultural inventions 

made in America 
was McCormick's 
reaping machine, 
patented in 1834. 
It was operated 
by horse power, 
and marked a 
great improve- 
ment over the la- 
borious methods 
The First Type of McCormick Reaper Qf reapino" pre- 

viously employed. It was improved later so that in addition 
to reaping it also bound the grain in sheaves. Its influence 
has been felt especially in the West, where it has made pos- 
sible farming on a most extensive scale. Great changes have 
also been wrought through the invention of numerous harrowing, 
sowing, baling machines, first driven by horse power and more 
recently by gasoline. No greater contrast can be imagined 
than that between the hand farming of colonial days and the 
machine farming of to-day. The farmer in 1800 plowed his 
land with wooden plows, sowed the grain broadcast by hand, 
and when it was ripe cut it with a scythe and threshed it on 
the barn floor with a flail. 

Huge automobile tractors have recently been invented and 
improved so that they perform the various complicated farm- 
ing operations with a rapidity that would have been regarded 
as unbelieval)le by the farmers of twenty or tliirtv years ago. 

Jiy the invention of canning and preserving processes, the hus- 
bandman's market has been greatly enlarged. He has, moreover, 
learned how to create an artificial climate inuler glass and to 
grow vegetables and fruits all winter. Cold storage keeps over 
for the winter the summer's surplus, and renders practicable the 
transportation of many perishable products over great distances. 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 151 




The "Clekmont" 

From Rei'gart's " Life of Fulton " 



254. Travel and Transportation. — If we imagine what 
would be ouv condition to-day witliout the use of steam and 
electricity and machine-made vehicles and vessels, we can form 
a pretty accurate picture of conditions a hundred years ago. 
Travel was slow and dangerous. 
The horse was of the greatest ser- 
vice, whether carrying a rider or 
pulling a coach. The roads were 
poor, and horseback was the best 
mode of travel. Outside of the 
towns but few wheeled wagons 
were seen. To go from New York 
to Philadelphia in three days was 
considered fast travelling. Travelling by water was particu- 
larly uncertain, since steamboats were unknown, and the 
variable wind was the only power which could be used. Sail- 
ing vessels were frequently wrecked by storms or seriously 
delayed by unfavorable winds. The trip across the Atlantic 
Ocean required as many weeks as it now takes days. In 1807 
the first steamboat was successfully operated by Robert Fulton. 
The Clermont, as it was named, steamed up the Hudson as far 
as Albany, to the wonder and terror of the people along its 
banks. This invention completely revolutionized water travel. 

Shortly after Fulton's successful experiment, numerous 
steamships plied the principal rivers and the lakes, and thus 
encouraged the further settlement of the West. The first 
steamshijj to cross the ocean was the Savannah, which in 1819 
started from Georgia. Many improvements have been made 
in steamships since that day, Ericsson's invention of the screw 
propeller being one of the most important. The passenger 
vessels of to-day may fittingly be called floating palaces, so 
complete are their conveniences and luxuries. The trip to 
Europe may now be made in a little over five days, and it is 
possible that the time will be further shortened in the near 
future. Iron has largely superseded wood in the construction 
of vessels. After the battle of the Monitor and Merrimac, 



152 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




■^'^■'^«^^=^— g^^^ 



iSALil.MOKt, AM) • )ll|() l\AII.KOAD, IboO 
Fniiu ail old iJiMiit. 



during the Civil War, war vessels were protected l)y iron, and 
now most large passenger and freight ships are made of iron 
or steel. 

Travelling on land has been completely transformed l)y tlie 
use of steam and electricity. The steam locomotive was in- 
vented iii England, 
and was at first a very 
crude affair, running 
at the rate of about ten 
miles an hour. ^lean- 
while experiments 
were being made in 
America, and in 1828 
Charles Carroll of 
^Maryland broke 
ground for the first 
passenger railroad in 
America, from Balti- 
more west. The first train ran over the road in 1830. In the 
course of the next ten years nearly three thousand miles of 
railroad were built in the different states. To-day there are 
more than two hundred and fifty thousand miles of railroads 
in the United States, carrying each year a billion tons of 
freight and five hundred and fifty millions of passengers. 
The growth of railroads was a more powerful influence 
than the steamboat in developing the West. Numerous im- 
provements have been made, so that to-<lay a very high rate 
of speed, sometimes as much as seventy miles an hour, has 
been reached by tlie handsomely equipped passenger trains. 
YoT street and suburlian traffic electricity has lately been 
extensively used. The modern well-furnished, brilliantly 
lighted trolley car in our principal cities seems to approach 
the ideal of smooth, clean, and comfortable travelling. The 
twentieth century will probably witness electricity supersed- 
ing steam for passenger and freight transportation. 

Among the pojjular means of travel to-day may be mentioned 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 153 



the bicycle, motorcycle, and especially the automobile. The 
bicycle and motorcycle are extensively used for healthful and 
pleasurable exercise, and also in business. In the automobile, 
electricity or gasoline, generally the latter, is used to furnish 
the power. The last decade has witnessed a marvellous in- 
crease in the use of automobiles. Their cost has been so greatly 
reduced that it is estimated that in the United States one per- 
son out of every thirty owns one of these vehicles. The auto- 
mobile will in all probability eventually supplant the horse. 

The building of canals has also served to facilitate commerce 
and develop the resources of the country. They furnish a 




Map of the Erie Canal 

cheap mode of transportation, especially for bulky goods of 
a non-perishable nature, as canal traffic is comparatively slow. 
The first great canal projected in this country was the Erie 
Canal, which was completed in 1825, connecting Buifalo and 
Albany, and thus furnishing a water outlet from the Great 
Lakes to the Atlantic by way of the Hudson River. Great 
quantities of grain are carried to the East and various manu- 
factures to the West by means of this canal. Thus all sec- 
tions of the country profit by it. Numerous other canals have 
been constructed in various parts of the United States. 



154 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



PACIFIC 



OCEAN 



Pinama , B^/boa 







"^'^4..'^''"- 

-6^^^- 




ATLANTIC OCEAN 



Relief Map of the Panama Canal 



The Panama Canal, which was constructed by the United 
States, was completed in 1913. This great artificial waterway 
connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans has been of tre- 
mendous advantage to the commerce of the world. It shortens 
the voyage from New York to San Francisco by 10,000 miles. 
In the conduct of war, the control of this canal is of vast 
importance to the United States. Under the efficient methods 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 155 



of the United States, and particularly through the efforts of 
Colonel G. W. Goethals, the Canal region has been entirely 
freed from the ravages of yellow fever. 

In recent years aerial navigation has made great strides. 
Many successful experiments have been made with dirigible 
balloons (lighter than air) and aero- 
planes (heavier than air). The 
problem of navigation of the air 
as a practical means of transporta- 
tion, though still presenting diffi- 
culties and dangers, seems to be 
rapidly nearing solution. 

The great European war has 
proved definitely the dependence 
of military supremacy upon a per- 
fected system of aerial scouting. 
It has also tended to produce a 
tragic realization of Tennyson's 
poetic prophecy — " the nations' 
airy navies grappling in the central 
blue." 

255. Communication. — Lacking the means of rapid travel 
emplo3'ed to-day, the people of colonial times suS'ered great 

inconvenience from the 
slowness and uncertainty 
of communication. The 
lumbering stage coaches 
brought news some days 
or weeks after the events 
had occurred. In urgent 
cases couriers were em- 
ployed to take messages, 
but it required as many days for the delivery of such mes- 
sages as it now takes hours or even minutes. News from 
abroad was, of course, delayed by the slowness of the sailing 
vessels. The great battle of New Orleans in the War of 1811^ 




Ax Aeroplane 




An (Jld-time Stagecoach 



156 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

was fought after peace was actually declared, because the 
uews could not be sent rj^uickly enough to the generals of the 
opposing armies. Mails in the colonial days were slow and 
expensive. As a consequence, comparatively few letters were 
written, and the postage was generally not prei)aid. The rail- 
road and steamboat have changed all this. For two cents, 
a letter carried by the fastest trains or vessels will now be 
delivered to any part of the United States or Great Britain. 

Even more important for communication than the rail- 
road and steamship have been the electrical inventions, the 
telegraph and telephone. In 1844 Professor S. F. 13. Morse, 
having received an appropriation of $30,000 from Congress, 
established the first system of telegraph wires, from Baltimore 
to AVashington. . The first message sent was, "What hath God 
wrought I " — an appropriate Biblical quotation, for what could 
have seemed more miraculous than that a message should be 
sent a distance of forty miles in a few seconds? By 1860 
there were one hundred thousand miles of line in operation in 
the world, and in 1900, one million miles. About one million 
messages are sent by wire every day in the year. 

As early as 1843 i\Iorse had said that telegraphic communica- 
tion across the Atlantic Ocean was possible. His prediction was 
fulfilled in 1858. Cyrus Field deserves the credit for the success 
of the venture. The cable operated successfully for a few weeks, 
and then stopped. Field was not discouraged l)y this failure, but 
in 1866 succeeded in laying a submarine cable from the United 
States to Ireland by way of Newfoundland, l)y Avhich permanent 
communication was established between Europe and America. 
Since then many other cables have been successfully laid, bring- 
ing all parts of the world in closer contact. There are now more 
than two hundred thousand miles of submarine cable, and the 
yearly number of messages sent is more than six million. 

By means of these telegraphic inventions we receive news 
of the important events from all parts of the world very shortly 
after their occurrence. How the world is benefited by means 
of these improvements can be shown by a single instance. 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 157 

When some time ago a horrible famine existed in Russia, 
the news was telegraphed and cabled to various parts of the 
world. In a short time fast-going steamships were crossing 
the Atlantic, carrying for the relief of the stricken people 
cargoes of grain raised by farming machinery in the West, 
and transported by railroads to the ocean ports. A hundred 
years ago the famine-stricken people might have starved before 
even the news of their condition had reached distant countries. 

A most wonderful modern invention is the method of teleg- 
raphy without the use of wires. It is no longer in the experi- 
mental stage, but competent authorities assert that this means of 
communication may be expected to take the place of both land 
and sulnnarine wires. Wireless telegraphy enables moving ships 
to communicate Avitli each other and with the land. There seems 
to be no limit to the distance which wireless messages may span. 

Another form of communication which, except for great 
distances, is more valuable than the telegraph, is the telephone, 
invented by Alexander Graham Bell. By means of this instru- 
ment conversations can be held between persons thousands of 
miles distant. All large modern cities have extensive tele- 
phone systems. Many business oflices and homes are fur- 
nished with telephones. So thoroughly accustomed have we 
become to these electrical conveniences that it is hard for us 
to imagine how people ever got along without them. 

256. Warfare. — Wonderful improvements have also been 
made since colonial days in instruments and methods of war- 
fare. In early daj'S iron breastplates and helmets were worn. 




Flintlock Matchlock 

The first guns were heavy and clumsy matchlocks, so called 
because a long slow-match was carried with which to ignite 
the powder. Their weight was so great that they could not be 



158 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



held in the ordinary way, but had to l)e rested on forked sticks. 
These guns were succeeded b}' flint-locks, in which sparks were 
made by flint striking steel. Since that time great changes 
have taken place. Self-cocking and repeating guns and re- 
volvers, rapid-hre cannon of 
immense range and terrible 
destructive power, bullets of 
high penetrating power, lyddite 
shells and smokeless powder, 
have largely revolutionized 
modern warfare. The great 
European war which began in 
1914 has been a revelation to 
the world of the tremendous 
possibilities of instruments of 
destruction. Supposedly im- 
pregnable fortifications have crumbled before powerful cannon 
of recent invention. Poisonous gases and liquid tire have 
added to the horrors of modern warfare. 

In naval equipment the progress has been still more marvel- 
lous. The old wooden sailing vessels, armed with short-range, 




A Modern Cannon 




A SUUMARINE 



smootli-bore cannon, have been superseded by steel-clad steam 
battleships, monitors, and torpedo boats employing rapid-fire 
guns with smokeless powder, which send shells with terriiic 
penetrating power to great distances. War vessels are also 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 159 



equipped with powerful searchlights. Increased efficiency in 
the management of submarines has made them very potent 
factors in naval warfare of to-day. 

The United States army and navy have grown greatly, espe- 
cially in recent years. The army in 1800 comprised 4118 men 
and 318 officers. At the 
head of the organization was 
a brigadier general. In 1916 
our army consisted of 100,000 
men. In 1800 the navy of 
the United States comprised 
17 frigates, 3 brigs, and 2 
schooners, without counting 
8 revenue cutters which were 
heavily armed. The two 
largest frigates, United States 
and Constitution, each carried 
42 guns. One of our unpro- 
tected cruisers of to-day 
could have sunk this primi- 
tive navy in a short time. 
Our present navy consists of 
more than 225 fighting vessels, including battleships, destroy- 
ers, cruisers, and submarines. 

257. Printing. — The art of printing has practically been 
revolutionized since colonial days. The hand-press of early 
days has been superseded by the steam-press invented by Hoe. 
The consequent decrease in the price of books brings them 
within the reach of all. The opportunity for reading thus 
afforded has been of the greatest advantage to the world, since 
books are the principal means of education and enlightenment 
for the masses. (See § 282.) To-day there is scarcely a house- 
hold too poor to own its little library. Not only is the printing 
itself done more cheaply, but lithographic, photo-chemical, and 
other processes of illustration have made books beautiful as well 
as interesting and instructive. Books for children, neatly bound 




The "Constitution" 

Launched in 179T ; now in the Boston 
Navv Yard. 



160 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 




and beautifully illustrated in colors, are now plentiful and 
cheap, whereas a hundred years ago they would have been an 
expensive luxury which only the wealthy might enjoy. The 
binding as well as the press work is now done by machinery. 

The greatest advance in modern 
methods of printing is seen in the 
newspapers of to-day. Newspapers 
of sixteen or more pages can be bought 
for a cent or two. These papers con- 
tain the most important news of the 
world, together with nmeh other enter- 
taining and instructive matter. It 
is interesting to watch the process 
of making a great modern newspaper. 
The type is set, the paper is printed, 
cut, folded, fastened, counted, and 
wrapped in bundles, all by ingenious 
machinc^'Tv. 

258. Medicine and Surgery. — When 
we consider the methods employed by 
physicians and surgeons in colonial and even later times, we 
should feel grateful that we enjoy the benefits of the wonder- 
ful progress of medical science. Perhaps the greatest boon 
to humanity in this held was the discovery of anaesthetics Viy 
Dr. W. T. G. Mortoji of Boston, in 1846. He found that arti- 
ficial sleep could be induced by certain gases, making the 
patient insensible to the pain of surgical operations. Prior to 
this discovery patients who had to be operated upon suffered 
the greatest agony, while death from shock was very frequent. 
To-day, even such a trivial operation as having a tooth ex- 
tracted is rendered painless by the inhalation of nitrous oxide 
gas. For more serious operations, ether is now generally 
employed. Bleeding was formerly employed as a universal 
remedy, often with fatal results, as is said to have been the 
case with Washington. To-day it is seldom used, as it is 
considered unwise and dangerous. 



Franklin's Printinu 
Press 

In the Smithsonian Institution, 
Washington. 



PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 161 

Pathology, or the science of diseases, has been revolutionized 
by the discovery that most diseases are caused by germs or 
microbes. The causes of contagion and infection being more 
perfectly understood, diseases are more easily prevented as 
well as cured, and epidemics are frequently averted. Many 
diseases which were considered incurable are now successfully 
treated by modern methods. Antiseptics which prevent putre- 
faction and blood-poisoning have also been discovered, so that 
surgical operations are much safer than they were formerly. 
The discovery of the Roentgen or X-rays has been of inestimable 
service to surgery. 

259. Photography and the Phonograph. — Recent years have 
witnessed a great development in the science and art of photog- 
raphy. The camera has come to occupy a prominent place 
not only as a means of refined diversion, but also as a form of 
scientific apparatus. Astronomy, anatomy, and criminology — 
to mention only a few examples — are deeply indebted to the 
progress of photography. 

The Motion Picture industry has created a new form of public 
entertainment, and there is no doubt that the photo-play will 
profoundly influence the development of the drama. At pres- 
ent, much attention is properly bestowed upon the encourage- 
ment of the motion picture as an educational agency, and to a 
rigid censorship in order to remove its demoralizing aspects. 

Edison's invention of the Phonograph has also been perfected 
and the cost of production reduced to such an extent as to bring 
the entertaining and refining influence of music into an in- 
creasing number of American homes. The principle of the 
phonograph has also proved itself to be of considerable com- 
mercial value. In the form of the Dictaphone it has to some 
extent supplanted the stenographer. 

260. Industrial Expositions. — There have been various ex- 
l)ositions a)id fairs to show the progress of the sciences and 
arts. Of these the three most important held in this country 
were tlic Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1S7(), 
the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893, and the Pan- 



162 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

American at Buffalo in 1901. The Philadelphia Exposition 
showed how completely steam machinery had taken the place 
of the hand labor of Washington's day, and suggested the 
beginning of the era of electricity. The wonderful progress 
which the latter has made was shown at the Chicago Exposition. 
We seem to be living in an electrical age. Although this 
mysterious force is so extensively used to-day, new applica- 
tions of it are constantly being made. Electricity will possi- 
bly accomplish more changes in the twentieth century than 
steam did in the nineteenth. The Pan-American Exposition 
was a representative exhibit of the commercial, industrial, and 
educational progress of the entire Western continent. 

The Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904) was held at St. 
Louis in commemoration of the great accession of territory in 
Jefferson's administration. Exhibits, showing methods and 
progress of education, formed an interesting feature of this 
exposition. The Lewis and Clarke Centennial Exposition held 
in Portland, Oregon, in 1905, marked the Iiundredth anniver- 
sary of the ]uoneer work of these courageous explorers. The 
Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition (1909) was held at Seattle, 
Washington. It directed attention to the progress of the 
Pacific states and to the wonderful resources of the northwest, 
especially Alaska. The Panama-Pacific Exposition (1915), held 
in San Francisco, celebrated the completion of the Panama 
Canal, one of the greatest feats of engineering and sanitation 
of modern times. 

These industrial expositions accelerate the march of progress 
by educating the millions of people who visit them, showing 
them what has been accomplished and stimulating them to 
further thought and activity. Furthermore, the different sec- 
tions of a country, and, in fact, the different nations of the world, 
acquire a fuller knowledge of each other's progress in the arts and 
sciences. This knowledge in itself tends to produce a greater har- 
mony in their commercial and hence in their political interests. 



CHAPTER XII 
PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 

Popular Education. — 261. Popular Education in the United States and 
Other Nations. 262. Relation to General Progress. 

Education in the Colonial Period. — 263. Differences in the Colonies 
as regards Education. 204. Early Education in New England. 
265. Higher Education. 266. Grammar Schools and Seminaries. 
267. Early Education in the Middle Colonies. 208. Early Education 
in the South. 269. Character of the Elementary Education. 
270. Influence of the Little Red Schoolhouse. 271. Character of the 
Higher Education. 

Other Means of Education in the Colonial Period. — 272. Experi- 
ence. 273. Newspapers. 274. Books. 275. Sermons. 

Education in the Republic. — 276. Effect of Independence. 277. 
Establishment of the Public School System. 278. Labors of Great 
Leaders. 279. Growth of the Public School System. 280. Improve- 
ments of the System. 281. Higher Education. 282. Other Means 
of Education. 283. Summary. 



163 



CHAPTER XII 

PROGKESS IN EDUCATION 
I. Popular Education 

261. Popular Education in the United States and Other 
Nations. — That p()i)uhiv education receives very great atten- 
tion in the United States at the present day is shown Ly a 
comparison of the relative expenditures of money for that 
purpose by the United States and other great nations. Sta- 
tistics show that the United States is far ahead of the otlier 
nations in the provision that it makes for education. 

262. Relation to General Progress. — The great advance that 
the United States has made, however, has been from such 
humble beginnings that- the story of its progress in educa- 
tion is just as remarkable as that of its growth in territory 
and population, and of its progress in the sciences and useful 
arts. One has kept pace with the other. In fact, these several 
lines of progress are so interwoven and interdependent that 
one could not well have been made without the other. ' Really 
permanent material growth and prosperity depend largely 
upon a far-sighted devotion to education, and as the country 
grows in wealth, it in turn provides more liberally for })ul)lic 
education. 

II. Education in the Colonial Period 

263. Differences in the Colonies in Regard to Education. — 

Althougli the struggle for existence in the early part of the 
colonial period was often very severe, yet many of the colonists 
appreciated so highly the necessity and advantages of educa- 
tion that they made strenuous efforts to provide schools and 

164 



PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 



165 



render education as nearly universal as possible. There were 
great differences in the attention given to education in the 
several groups of colonies. Democratic Xew England made 
by far the greatest and most successful efforts to establish 
schools and promote free public education. In aristocratic 
Virginia there was opposition to the idea of public educa- 
tion. The Middle colonies encouraged education, but it did 
not secure there the generous support that it was given by the 
Puritans. 



%-M ,- 't ■-— -tilt \i7.^i'^«iiJfe'?^j- •'►•• •• "^ 








Harvard College in the Eighteexth Century 

After a [licture entitled " A Prospect of tile t'oUedges in Cambridg'e in New England ' 
in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 



264. Early Education in New England. — Hardly had the 
Puritans built their homes and founiled their churches before 
they sought to establish schools. They regarded it as the duty 
of the government to contribute to the education of its future 
citizens. As early as 1647 laws were passed requiring every 
town to establish a free school, and every town of one hundred 
families a grammar school. Compulsory education laws, requir- 
ing the attendance of all children of school age, were passed 
in every colony except Khode Island. The crudely built log 
schoolhouses became a prominent feature of the New England 
landscape. 



166 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

265. Higher Education. — Not only did the Puritans estal)- 
lish a free public school system, but they also . founded the 
first institution for higher education in the country. In 1636 
money was voted to found a college at Cambridge, which was 
afterward (1638) named Harvard College, in honor of Eev. 
John Harvard, who bequeathed his library and half his estate 
to the college. The respect for learning felt by the people of 
New England was at one time shown by almost every family 
contributing something toward the support of the college. 
Yale College had an even more humble beginning than Har- 
vard. Two ministers made the first contribution — a number 
of books — in 1700. It was formally founded in 1701 at Say- 
brook, Connecticut, being afterward removed to New Haven. 

266. Grammar Schools and Seminaries. — There were schools 
intermediate between the common schools and colleges, where 
young men were prepared for entrance into college. They 
were known as grammar schools and seminaries, and were 
generally conducted by ministers. 

267. Early Education in the Middle Colonies. — The Dutch 
of New Netherland seemed almost as eager as the Puritans 
to secure education for their children, and established some 
free schools (the first in 1633). ITnff)rtunately these schools 
were not encouraged by the English when New Netherland 
came under their rule. The ftuakers of Pennsylvania were 
active in the cause of education, establishing free schools and 
academies. The University of Pennsylvania (1745) at Phila- 
delphia, founded largely through the efforts of Benjamin 
Fianklin, Princeton College (1746) in New Jersey, and Colum- 
bia College (1754) in" New York were results of early attempts 
to provide higher education, and are now to be numbered 
among the greatest colleges and universities in the country. 
They were supported almost entirely by private means and 
endowments. In the ^Middle colonies there was, in fact, very 
little public money devoted to education. Even the element- 
ary schools, which were rather numerous, were for the most 
part private schools. 



PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 167 

268. Early Education in the South. — Public education was 
neglected more in the South than in any other part of the coun- 
try. It was actually opposed by Governor Berkeley of Vir- 
ginia, who wrote, " I thank God there are no free schools nor 
printing." Education was regarded as the duty of the family, 
and not a matter to be undertaken by the government. Tutors 
were employed by the planters to educate their children, or 
children were sent abroad for that purpose. Yet some people 
battled against these ideas, and a few free schools were estab- 




COLLEGE OF WiLLIAM AND MARY 

After a lithograph made from a drawing by Thomas Millington, about 1740. 

lished. Higher education, however, was not neglected. Wil- 
liam and Mary College (1G93), the second oldest college in 
America, was, before the Ilevolution, one of the most impor- 
tant institutions of learning in the country. 

269. Character of the Elementary Education. — The difficul- 
ties under which education was carried on were numerous. 
Although many schoolhouses dotted the country, a large num- 
ber of the pupils had long distances to go, often through sec- 
tions of a country without roads and beset with many dangers. 
The schoolhouse itself was generally but a one-room log cabin 
furnished with rough boards for seats and desks. Both pens 
and ink were home-made. Maps, charts, libraries, and other 
helpful apparatus so familiar to the modern schoolboy were 
entirely absent, but the all-important symbol of the peda- 



168 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



i3(i ^"^ £^^' 

m WHOLE hi" 

lejili BOOKE OFPSALMES A^ 
rjL TRANSIATED -I, ENGLISH [Ai, 

-?r-' whernimoisprtfixcdi difoouricdc' •■ ••" 



VJ^cUripg not only the Uwful)n«l, butalfooJO 
i}.(i thcncctfrityoftSchcavcnlyOriiiiuoceOL'l 
i*(L of fingins Scripoitt Pdlraci in j^ju. 



gogue's office — the bircli rod or stout hickory stick — was 
always conspicuously present and was frequently employed. 
The text-books were the primer and spelling-book, badly 
printed. The pictures which some 
of them contained seem to-day like 
absurd caricatures. Hymn books and 
catechisms were often utilized, not 
only for religious instruction, but 
also as a means for the teaching of 
reading, spelling, etc. The teachers 
were poorly paid. Many were not 
very learned, some were intemperate. 
The best of them taught school only 
temporarily, to support themselves 
while they prepared for some other 
more profitable work or profession. 
The three R's — Keadin', 'Ritin', and 
'Rithmetic — were the subjects taught, 
— the barest rudiments of an educa- 
tion. The girls generally received 
even less instruction than the boys. 
Xeedle work was regarded as better 
for them than writing. In some 

localities the boys went to school in winter and the girls in 
summer. The discipline was harsh and even brutal. The 
continual flogging was bad enough, but other cruel and degrad- 
ing forms of punishment were employed. 

270. Influence of the Little Red Schoolhouse. — Yet in spite 
of all the defects of this early education, the " little red school- 
house" (many .were painted that color) became deservedly 
famous for its work in educating the children of the colonists. 
It kept alive the spirit of education, and paved the way for 
the development of the great free public school system of 
which the United States is to-day so justly proud. 

271. Character of the Higher Education. — The higher edu- 
cation of colonial days was also very simple and crude as 



i-lt rrtltimj,*riurts. rl' I 

■;v^: if^h.ffiia.d.inbi.'r'j.'-'if rji. 
op; ^f?l 

i^u .'„ «3a 

Reduced Facsimile of the 
Title-page of the First 
Book PRINTED in America 



PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 169 

compared with that of to-day. A grammar school meant a 
school for Latin and Greek grammar, which were taught to 
the neglect cf the mother tongue. In fact, little else than 
Latin, Greek, and mathematics was taught at all. The semi- 
naries were boarding schools, each containing but a few pupils. 
The fare was poor and coarse, the discipline brutal. The col- 
leges were small affairs as compared with the great institu- 
tions of to-day. The average age of their pupils was nearer 
that of the pupils of the modern grammar or high school. 
The course of instruction usually included little besides the 
dead languages and mathematics. Nevertheless, these institu- 
tions were the fruitful beginnings of the great system of pre- 
paratory schools, colleges, and universities that now offer such 
splendid opportunities for higher education in every part of 
the United States. 

III. Other Means of Education in the Colonial Period 

272. Experience. — School and college do not afford the 
only means by which people are educated. The whole of one's 
surroundings, everything one sees and does, helps or hinders 
his education. "Experience is the best teacher." The very 
difficulties the colonists had to overcome, the hardships they 
had to endure to secure an education, and the hard struggle 
for life in the early period developed their characters, making 
them frugal, thrifty, industrious, fearless, and self-reliant, and 
implanting that spirit of independence which sustained them 
in their rebellion against oppression. 

273. Newspapers. — The press is to-day one of the great 
educational forces of the world. The colonists did not have a 
newspaper until 1700, and at the beginning of the Revolution 
there were only thirty-seven in circulation. ]\rost of these were 
published in the New England and the Middle states, New 
England having fourteen, and New York and Pennsylvania 
together thirteen papers. They bore little resemblance to the 
great papers of to-day. They were little sheets, poorly printed, 



170 



SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 



and from a modern standpoint absurdly illustrated. As they 
had few facilities for getting information from different parts 
of the country, their news was principally local. They would 
sometimes publish letters received by the townspeople from 
friends abroad or in other colonies. These letters were long 
and contained matters that are seldom found in a modern let- 



NuM. 108^ 




The AMERICAN 
WE E KLY M E RCUR r. 

From Thurfday Oader i, to Thurfday Ocloberi), tJ^O. 

Reduced Facsimile of the Heading of an Early Issue of the 
First Newspaper in Philadelphia 



ter, since the daily newspaper supplies such information in 
more than abundant measure. 

274. Books. — Pew books were written and published in the 
colonies, and not very many were brought from abroad. The 
best of the colleges had only what would now be regarded as 
insignificant libraries. The books to be found in the homes 
were largely theological works. (See §§ 286, 287.) Benjamin 
Franklin's " Poor Eichard's Almanac " was full of a homely 
wit and practical wisdom well suited to the conditions of a 
people struggling to establish themselves in a new world. 

275. Sermons. — The clergy, especially those of New Eng- 
land, formed an educated class. They were held in great re- 
spect by every one on account of their learning and profession. 
The Sunday sermon, two, three, or even more hours in length, 
gave the people subject for thought, and was an educational 
influence of no mean importance. 



PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 171 

IV. Education in the Republic 

276. Effect of Independence. — The attainment of indepen- 
dence aroused a new interest in education. The instruction of 
its children was felt to be a patriotic duty that each state 
owed to the republic. The early fathers of the nation be- 
lieved this strongly, and exerted great influence for the cause. 
Washington said, " In proportion as the structure of a govern- 
ment gives force to public opinion, it is necessary that public 
opinion be enlightened." Jefferson combated the aristocratic 
ideas of Governor Berkeley, and introduced a bill into the 
General Assembly of Virginia for the establishment of schools 
" for the free training of all free children, male or female." 
Benjamin Franklin expressed his belief as follows, "A Bible 
and a newspaper in every house, a free school in every dis- 
trict, all studied and appreciated as they merit, are the princi- 
pal supports of Virtue, Morality and Civil Liberty." 

277. Establishment of the Public School System. — The peo- 
ple in general were willing to put in practice these wise 
suggestions for universal education, but it proved to be a 
matter beset with difficulties. How to raise the money was 
one important question, on which all did not agree. What 
religion, if any, should be taught in the schools, was another 
problem. At first only poor children received free education. 
The public schools then suffered from being called " Pauper 
Schools." Though the free common schools of the New Eng- 
land and the Middle colonies furnished the beginnings, there 
was a period of fifty years (1790-1840) of struggle for free 
and universal education before a truly great and extensive 
system of free public schools became firmly established. 

278. Labors of Great Leaders. — Horace Mann of Massachu- 
setts and Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania labored zealously 
in the cause of the free public schools, and were not only suc- 
cessful in the practical work of organizing the school systems 
of their own states, but also in arousing great interest in public 
education throughout the country. 



172 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

279. Growth of the Public School System. — The latter half 
of the iiiueteeiith ceutury saw a wonderful extension and im- 
provement of the free public school system. The Federal gov- 
ernment encouraged education by grants of land (See § 108). 
More than eighty million acres of public lands have been thus 
devoted to education. Western emigrants carried Eastern ideas 
of education with them, and the schools of the West compare 
favorably to-day with any in the country. Little progress 
was made in the South until after the Civil War. ^luch 
attention is now being devoted to tlie problem of educating the 
negro population of the Southern states. Census returns for 
schools give some idea of the growth of the public school 
system. Public schools enroll in all about twenty million 
pupils or nearly one-fifth of the entire population of the 
United States, More than half a million teachers are em- 
ployed, and the expenses for the maintenance of the system 
amount to more than $500,000,000 annually. 

280. Improvement of the System. — The public school 
system has not only grown in extent, but the greatest improve- 
ment has taken place in the character of the education afforded. 
A few little backwoods schools exist that remind one of the 
primitive schools of our forefathers ; but even in poor coun- 
try districts we find well-built schools with good desks, 
books, maps, and other needful apparatus, while the school- 
houses of the great cities are marvels of tine architecture, 
well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and of fireproof construc- 
tion. They are furnished with everything that will help to 
make study interesting and fruitfid. Teaching' has become a 
profession, for which young men and women prepare by special 
study, just as lawyers and physicians prepare for their work. 
The instruction is thus in the hands of competent persons, and 
is as much superior to that of colonial times as is the modern 
school building to its little forerunner of that period. Corporal 
punishment has been largely abolished ; in some places by 
legislation, in others by custom. To the " three K's " of the 
log schoolhouse, other subjects have been gradually added 



PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 173 

until the modern course of study also embraces history, geog- 
raphy, nature study, science lessons, music, and drawing. 
Attention is given to the pupil's body as well as to his mind 
by means of manual training and physical exercises. 

281. Higher Education. — High schools and normal schools 
have become important features of the public school system, and 
those of to-day are far superior even to the colleges of the past. 
Colleges and universities have shared in the general advance in 
educational work. At present there are one or more in every 
state in the Union, more than live, hundred in all. They have 
more than 200,000 students, about 30,000 of whom are preparing 
for professional life in legal, medical, and theological schools. 

In recent years attention has been strongly directed to the 
necessity of giving young men and women practical prepa- 
ration for industrial and commercial activities. In many cities 
the courses of study in the higher grades of the elementary 
schools and in the high schools have been arranged with this 
end in view. Scientific and practical instruction in agriculture 
and the various trades and industries is given in schools and 
colleges especially established for this work. This vocational 
education is now regarded by prominent educators of this coun- 
try and Europe as one of the greatest movements of to-day. 

282. Other Means of Education. — Just as schools and col- 
leges iiave improved, so have other agencies which contribute 
to the education of the people. The daily newspaper brings to 
the home an account of the events in all parts of the world. 
Enormous quantities of books of all sorts are printed, so that 
reading matter may be cheaply purchased. Great free libraries, 
some founded by the generosity of rich philanthropists, such 
as Andrew Carnegie, others supported by public taxation, are 
important influences for popular education. Even small towns 
boast of their free libraries. Traveling libraries have also 
been successfully employed. 

Public lectures by distinguished scientists, writers, and trav- 
elers have always been popular, and have contributed not a 
little to the education of the people. In some places, notably 



174 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

in New England, this kind of public education became a well- 
developed lyceum system. University extension is a develop- 
ment of the lyceum plan. Universities now give courses of 
afternoon and evening lectures at various local centres, and 
direct to some extent the collateral reading of their auditors. 
Effective work is done in this way, and the movement is grow- 
ing. A more recent plan for adult instruction is that of giv- 
ing free evening lectures in the schoolhouses, the system being 
under the control of boards of public education. 

The moving picture has become an important instrument for 
education. A moving picture apparatus is a part of the equip- 
ment of a modern school and motion pictures are frequently 
used by public lecturers to illustrate their talks. In the ordi- 
nary moving picture shows or photo play theatre, news of the 
day, scenes in foreign lands, inventions and discoveries, com- 
mercial and industrial processes, demonstrations of scientific 
facts and principles, and other displays that are classed as 
educational are frequently given. 

Another modern invention that may be classed as an edu- 
cational agency is the phonograph. This instrument is used in 
schools to assist in developing in the pupils an appreciation of 
good music. It exerts an influence of this kind also upon thou- 
sands of auditors who are merely seeking to enjoy themselves. 

The Sunday school is an educative influence that has been 
growing in importance. The Sunday schools of to-day have 
nearly as large an enrollment as the public schools. 

283. Summary. — The great public school system, embracing 
elementary (primary and grammar) and high schools, the 
colleges and universities, free libraries, church and Sunday 
schools, university extension and other popular systems, afford 
such splendid opportunities for both child and adult that a high 
grade of intelligence characterizes the American people. More- 
over, the daily newspapers offer such valuable daily instruction 
that the poorest workingman may be well informed on the ques- 
tions of the day, and able to think for himself and intelligently 
exercise the right of suffrage as a citizen of the great republic. 



CHAPTEK XIII 
GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 

Origin and Grov/th of American Literature. — 284. Progress in Lit- 
erature. 285. American Literature is English. 286. The First 
Printing Press. 

The Colonial Period (1607-1765). — 287. Character of Colonial Writ- 
ings. 288. Colonial Writers. 

The Revolutionary Period (1765-1812). — 289. Character of the 
Period. 290. Thomas Paine. 291. Thomas Jefferson. 292. The 
Federalist. 293. Other Writers. 

The Birth of American Literature. — 294. Change beginning in Mon- 
roe's Administration. 29.5. Washington Irving. 296. James Feni- 
more Cooper. 297. William Cullen Bryant. 298. John Greenleaf 
Whittier. 299. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 300. Oliver Wendell 
Holmes. 301. Nathaniel Hawthorne. 302. Edgar Allan Poe. 30.3. 
Harriet Beecher Stowe. 304. Ralph Waldo Emenson. 305. James 
Russell Lowell. 

The Historians. — 306. William Hickling Pre.scott. 307. George Ban- 
croft. 308. John Lothrop Motley. 309. Francis Parkman. 

Recent Writers. —310. Samuel L. Clemens. 311. William D. Howells 
and Henry James. 312. Eugene Field. 313. James Whitcomb 
Riley. 



176 



CHAPTER XIII 

GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 
I. Origin and Growth of American Literature 

284. Progress in Literature. — The growth of the nation in 
population and its progress in education, science, and art has 
been accompanied by an important development in literature. 
Starting with practically no literature whatever, the United 
States now ranks prominently among the literary countries of 
the world. Its leading writers, poets, historians, and novelists 
have gained recognition and are now widely read in Europe as 
well as on this side of the ocean. Literary progress has been 
encouraged by the granting of copyrights to authors which 
give them the exclusive right to the publication of their works 
for a considerable period of years. This power was wisely 
granted to Congress by the Constitution, and it has been 
productive of excellent results. Agreements have been made 
within recent years between the United States and the leading 
nations of the world, enabling an author to copyright his works 
in any of these countries. It took years of agitation to secure 
this international copyright (1891), and its effect upon the 
growth of literature has been marked. 

285. American Literature is English. — We have seen in a 
previous chapter how England became supreme in America ; 
how, in other words, English ideas and traditions were to be- 
come prominent factors in American civilization, and especially 
that the English language was to be the language of the people. 
How thoroughly this last effect has been produced is very 
evident to-day. English is the language of our courts, schools, 
churches, newspapers, and books. This language with its 

170 



GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 177 

power and beauty of expression is, next to our love of free- 
dom, our richest and dearest inheritance from England. No 
greater hope could have inspired the minds of the founders of 
this continent than that our literature should be a continua- 
tion of the literature of England. England has produced some 
of the greatest dramatists, poets, and novelists that the world 
has ever known. America can justly be proud that her litera- 
ture employs a language which has been so effectively 
used by Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, Byron, Scott, and 
Thackeray. 

286. The First Printing Press. — The first printing press in 
America was established at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. 
The following year (1640) the first book ever printed in America 
was published. It was entitled the " Bay Psalm Book." Al- 
though this work in itself was of little literary value, consist- 
ing of psalms in very poor verse, nevertheless a start had been 
made. Many other books were subsequently printed, and the 
number has steadily increased until to-day, with the invention 
of the improved steam press, thousands of volumes are printed 
daily, and their cost has been much reduced. 

II. The Colonial Period (1607-1765) 

287. Character of Colonial Writings. — During the first cen- 
tury of English settlement in America, there was little time 
for literature. Cities were to be built, roads cut through the 
wilderness, and the Indians were an ever present source of dis- 
turbance. A certain amount of tranquillity and peace of mind 
is necessary for the growth of art or literature, and these fac- 
tors are always absent in a new country beset with savage 
tribes. The people were too busy for reading, much less for 
writing. Hence during the colonial period there were but few 
books. These were chiefly written by ministers, who were 
about the only persons who had time or inclination for such 
matters. In thinking of American literature we seldom in- 
clude this period, and the books of the time may be said to 
have mainly an historical interest for the student of literature. 



178 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

As almost all the American settlers came to this country on 
account of religious persecution, it was natural that most of 
their books should be of a religious, or rather theological, char- 
acter. " Between the years 1706 and 1718 all the publications 
known to have been printed in America number at least five 
hundred and fifty. Of these all but eighty-four were on reli- 
gious topics, and of the eighty-four, forty-nine were almanacs." 
These almanacs were conspicuous in most households of colo- 
nial days, and were regarded as indispensable. They con- 
tained information upon the crops, weather, and roads. " Poor 
Richard's Almanac" Avas one of the most famous, and con- 
tained, in addition to the usual almanac information, many 
proverbs which have become familiar, such as : " God helps 
them that help themselves," " Early to bed and early to rise, 
makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." The publication of 
the almanac was begun by Benjamin Franklin in 1732, and the 
work became very popular; its maxims have been circulated 
wherever the English language is spoken. 

288. Colonial Writers. — The three most prominent literary 
men of the colonial period were Cotton Mather (1663-1728), a 
very learned Puritan clergyman who wrote over four hundred 
books on religious subjects; Jonathan Edwards (1703-58), 
also a theological writer of great reasoning powers, his princi- 
pal work being " Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will " ; and 
Benjamin Franklin (1706-90). His "Autobiography" is his 
principal literary work. All his writings are characterized by 
homely wit and wisdom. His scientific writings and discov- 
eries also attracted wide attention. He originated the Phila- 
delphia Library, the University of Pennsylvania, and the 
American Philosophical Society. 

III. The Revolutionary Period (1765-1812) 

289. Character of the Period. — From the time of the first 
resistance of the colonists to the rule of Great Britain, 
up to the establishment of the independent government, in 
other words during the time that thoughts of liberty stiried 



GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 179 

the hearts and minds of the American people, the literature — 
if it can be called such — took a decided change. During the 
colonial period the writings were mostly theological and argu- 
mentative ; in the Revolutionary period they were mainly politi- 
cal and passionate. They began with the fiery speeches of 
orators like Patrick Henry and James Otis, and ended during 
the formation and discussion of the Constitution with the 
carefully prepared political papers of men like Hamilton and 
Madison. The Revolution thus produced many great orators 
and statesmen who have left remarkable writings and state 
letters. The principal orators of the time were Samuel Adams, 
James Otis, Josiah Quincy, and Patrick Henry. Many of their 
speeches have become familiar, and we can easily imagine how 
their eloquent delivery must have stirred the feelings of the 
people during those exciting times. 

290. Thomas Paine (1737-1809). — Thomas Paine was an 
important character of the Revolutionary period on account of 
the effect produced by his political writings. He attempted 
to justify the principles which were afterwards fought for in 
the French Revolution, and urged the colonists to achieve com- 
plete independence. In ''The Crisis," which Washington in 
1776 ordered to be read to all the troops, and which did much 
to inspire and encourage them, these stirring words are found : 
" These are the times that try men's souls. The summer 
soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink 
from the service of his country ; but he that stands it now 
deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." 

291. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). —Thomas Jefferson de- 
serves a large place in the history of American writei's, if not 
in the history of American literature, on account of his author- 
ship of the Declaration of Independence, one of the greatest 
political documents ever written. 

292. The Federalist. — Tlie Federalist was the name given 
to a series of papers written by Alexander Hamilton, John 
Jay, and James Madison. Its object was to convince the 
people of New York of the excellence of the Constitution and 



180 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to urge them to ratify it. Fiske says of The Federalist that 
it is " undoubtedly the most profound and suggestive treatise 
on government that has ever been written." Hamilton is 
deserving of the greatest credit for this work, as he originated 
it and was its largest contributor. 

293. Other Writers. — During this period there were other 
political writers, the most important of whom were Fisher 
Ames, John Marshall, and William Wirt. The devolution 
also produced some poets, notably John Trumbull, Joel Barloe, 
and Philip Freneau. They wrote patriotic verses and ballads 
glorifying the deeds of the Americans, and often directed the 
weapons of satire and ridicule against the Tories. 

IV. The Birth of American Literature 

294. Change beginning in Monroe's Administration. — After 
the country had settled down from the exciting times of the 
Revolutionary struggle, and the War of 1812 had assiu-ed 
national stability, people had leisure for scientific and literary 
pursuits. The nation had passed through its period of weak- 
ness, and had taken its place in the family of nations of the 
world. Times of peace are always encouraging to the arts 
of peace, — science, fine arts, literature, — and so we find an 
array of authors, beginning with Washington Irving, who have 
made it possible to speak of a real American literature., The 
theology of the colonial period and the politics of the Eevolu- 
tionary period were succeeded by the literature of the newly 
established republic. A very few only of the large list of 
names which deserve a place in the history of American liter- 
ature can be here considered, and of these but ver}' brief 
accounts can be given. Every student should- become familiar 
with the works of our greatest authors, not by reading mere 
accounts of them, but by reading the books themselves. 

295. Washington Irving (1783-1859). — Washington Irving 
has been called the "Father of American Literature.*' His 
writings, through their undeniable literary value, were the first 
to become famous in Europe. Up to this time people in Eng- 



GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 181 

land had scorned the idea of any great literary work emanat- 
ing from America. Irving's style was at once elegant, clear, 
smooth, and characterized by a delightful humor. His " Sketch 
Book/' containing the well-known stories " Rip Van Winkle " 
and " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," should be read by every 
person who Avishes to be entertained and amused by masterful 
description, genuine emotion, and clean, pure humor. Among 
his best-known works are " Knickerbocker's History of New 
York," a delightfully comic history of the early Dutch settlers 
of New Netherland, " Wolfert's Roost," a collection of stories ; 
and a number of biographical and historical works, the most 
important of these being, " Life of Columbus," " Conquest of 
Granada," '•' Alhambra," and " Life of Washington." 

296. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851). — James Feni- 
more Cooper was the first great American novelist. He has 
been called the "American Scott," as his tales bear some resem- 
blance to the works of the famous author of the " Waverley " 
novels. His writings are principally tales of adventure, the 
scenes being laid in American forests or upon the sea. Cooper 
spent his early years on the frontier, and thus learned by 
actual experience and association the kind of life which he 
has so well portrayed in his novels. His first successful 
work was " The Spy," the story of which was based upon an 
incident of the American Revolution. This book was highly 
j)raised in England and France, so that it may properly be said 
that he was the second writer to show to the world that we 
were to have a literature of our own. Shortly after "The 
Spy," Cooper published a series of books known as the 
" Leather Stocking Tales," dealing with life in the wilderness 
and giving a vivid description of the Indians. Natty Bumpo 
(Leather Stocking) is the hero of the stories, and his adventures 
are narrated in an interesting manner in "The Deerslayer," 
"The Last of the Mohicans," "The Pathfinder," "The Pio- 
neers," and " The Prairie." Cooper may be said to have origi- 
nated the sea story. All who have written sea stories since 
have merely imitated him. His principal works of this descrip- 



182 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

tion are " The Pilot," John Paul Jones being the title charac- 
ter, " The Ked Rover," and " The Water Witch." These books 
will be interesting so long as boys are boys and exciting 
adventures graphically described have the power to hold the 
attention. 

297. William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878). — William Cullen 
Bryant was our first great poet. On account of his love of 
nature and beautiful descriptions of natural scenery, he has 
been called the " American Wordsworth." He was essentially 
a poet of nature, and the subjects which he describes most 
picturesquely are American landscapes and scener3\ One of 
his most famous poems, " Thanatopsis," is in blank, i.e. un- 
rhymed verse, and deals with the subject of death. This 
poem is the more worthy of our admiration and wonder when 
we consider that Bryant was a lad of but seventeen when 
he wrote it. He later published a scholarly translation of 
Homer's great epics, the " Iliad" and "Odyssey." The poems in 
which his love of nature is most manifest are " To a W^ater- 
fowl," "Green River," "The Death of the Flowers," and 
"The Evening Wind." The first stanzas of his lines "To a 
Waterfowl " well show his power of descriptive imagery : — 

" Whither, midst falling clew, 
While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, 
Far through their rosy depths dost thou pursue 
Thy solitary way ? 

" Vainly the fowler's eye 
Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong, 
As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, 
Thy figure floats along. 

" Seek'st thou the plashy brink 
Of weedy lake or marge of river wide. 
Or where the rocking billows rise and sink 
On the chafed ocean side ? " 

298. John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-92). — John Greenleaf 
Whittier is sometimes known as New England's Quaker Poet. 



GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 183 

Although he had not so thorough an education as some of our 
other writers, his poems breathe a spirit of sincerity, and their 
sentiments are lofty and noble. He was a great lover of free- 
dom, and was prominently connected with the anti-slavery 
movement in the North. His poems did much to stir up the 
masses against slavery, and contributed largely to bring about 
the final emancipation of the slave. Like Bryant, Whittier 
was also a lover of nature, and some of his poems are master- 
pieces of description of New England scenery. Next to Long- 
fellow, he is our most popular poet. Some of his poems are 
"Barbara Freitchie," "Voices of Freedom," "To William Lloyd 
Garrison," "Skipper Ireson's Kide," "Snow Bound," and "Bare- 
foot Boy." The opening lines of the last-named poem give a 
good example of his sincere and hearty style : — 

"Blessings on thee, little man, 
Barefoot boy with cheek of tan, 
With thy turned up pantaloons 
And thy merry whistled tunes ; 
With thy red lip redder still 
Kissed by strawberries on the hill ; 
With the sunshine on thy face 
Through thy torn brim's jaunty grace : 
From my heart I give thee joy, 
I was once a barefoot boy." 

299. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-82). — Henry 
Wadsworth Longfellow wrote a few prose works, but he is 
principally known, admired, and loved on account of his 
poetry. He is the most popular and widely read poet of 
America. His writings show the effect of foreign travel and 
study, but many of them are so clear and simple that even 
children can understand and enjoy them. The first collection 
of poems which he published was entitled "Voices of the 
Night." It contained some of his most popular verses, " The 
Psalm of Life," " The Eeaper and the Flowers," " Footsteps 
of Angels," and " The Beleaguered City." Somewhat later was 
published a volume containing the beautiful poem entitled 



184 Sl'RVEY OF UNITP:D states IIISTOIJY 

"The Building of the Ship," closing with the following mag- 
nificent lines : — 

" Thou, too, sail on, ship of state ! 
Sail on, O union, strong and great ! 
Humanity with all its fears. 
With all its hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 

" Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea, 
Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee, 
Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears. 
Our faith triumphant o'er our fears, 
Are all with thee, — are all with thee !" 

" Tales of a Wayside Inn " was the title of another famous 
book of verse. Its best-known poems are " Paul Revere's 
Ride " and " King Olaf.'' '* Evangeline," a beautiful poetical 
story of the expulsion of the Acadians ; "Hiawatha,"' the 
epic of the red race of America ; and " The Courtship of 
Miles Standish," a romance of New England colonial days, give 
beautiful and interesting descriptions of the people and times 
to which they relate. 

300. Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-94). — Oliver Wendell 
Holmes Avas both a poet and a prose writer. Most of his writ- 
ings contain a delicate humor, and are replete with bright and 
original thoughts. His best-known prose works are " The 
Autocrat of the Breakfast Table," " Professor at the Break- 
fast Table," and "Poet at the Breakfast Table." The first 
of these is deservedly the most famous. Two novels "Elsie 
Venner" and "The Guardian Angel," are both stories of a 
weird character. Holmes's best known poems are " The 
Chambered Nautilus," " The Deacon's Masterpiece," and 
"The Last Leaf." 

301. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64). — Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne has been styled the " greatest imaginative writer since 
Shakespeare." He is probably the most artistic writer that 
America has yet produced. He wrote numerous short stories. 



GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 185 

Some are fanciful and weird, and deal with events and scenes 
of colonial times. Many contain impressive moral lessons, e.g. 
" The Great Stone Face." The collections of short stories 
are entitled " Twice-told Tales," " Mosses from an old Manse," 
" Snow Image," " Wonder Book," and " Tanglewood Tales." 
The latter two contain interesting stories for children. Haw- 
thorne's principal novels are " The Scarlet Letter," one of 
the greatest novels ever written, " House of the Seven Gables," 
and " The Marble Faun." 

302. Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49). — Edgar Allan Poe was 
the author of numerous prose stories and poems. The subjects 
of his writings are generally weird. He has been compared 
with Hawthorne, as they both were very imaginative ; but 
all of Hawthorne's works had moral applications which Poe's 
commonly lacked. Poe's poetry is charmingly written, the 
versiiication being musical and euphonious. " The Eaven " 
and " The Bells " are his two best known poems, Poe may be 
said to have originated the modern detective story. 

303. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812-98). — Harriet Beecher 
Stowe helped with a novel to bring about what Whittier's 
poems also partly accomplished, viz., the abolition of slavery. 
" Uncle Tom's Cabin " Avill be remembered as long as the Civil 
War is mentioned in history. It is one of the most popular 
novels ever written, and became famous in Europe as well as 
in America. 

304. Ealph Waldo Emerson (1803-82). — Ralph Waldo 
Emerson was a great thinker, poet, and essayist. His writings 
are profound, and show great learning and power of original 
thought. Some of his principal works are " Nature," a philo- 
sophic and theological study ; " Representative Men," " Con- 
duct of Life," " Society and Solitude." 

305. James Russell Lowell (1819-91). — James Russell 
Lowell was prominent as critic, essayist, and poet. His prose 
writings show great literary skill and judgment. Two of his 
best-known poems are the " Ode to Freedom " and " The Com- 
memoration Ode." The most important works of Lowell are 



186 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

" The Vision of Sir Launfal ; " " The Biglow Papers," a hu- 
morous satire written in Yankee dialect ; and the " Fable for 
Critics," which is a critical satire on American poets. The 
following beautiful lines upon Abraham Lincoln are from 
** The Commemoration Ode : " — 

"... Standing like a tower, 

Our children shall behold his fame, 

The kindly, earnest, brave, foreseeing man. 

Sagacious, patient, dreading praise not blame. 

New birth of our new soil, the first American." 

V. Historians 

306. WiUiam Hickling Prescott (1796-1859). — William 
Hickliug Prescott was one of our greatest historians. He 
dealt with Spanish subjects in such an interesting way that his 
works are as entertaining as romance. His principal works are 
" Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella," " Conquest of Mexico," 
and " Conquest of Peru." 

307. George Bancroft (1800-91). — George Bancroft is fa- 
mous for his '' History of the United States." While Jiot so 
interesting as Prescott's work, it is one of the most scholarly 
and authoritative histories ever written. 

308. John Lothrop Motley (1814-77). — John Lothrop 
Motley is considered by some as the greatest of American his- 
torians. His writings deal with the history of the Netherlands. 
They are graphic and scholarly. His principal works are 
entitled " The Rise and Fall of the Dutch Republic " and " The 
History of the United Netherlands." 

309. Francis Farkman (1823-93). — Francis Parkman is one 
of the most brilliant and vivid historians. He chose for his 
subject the French in America. The title of his series of 
histories is " France and England in North America, a Series 
of Historical Narratives." Some of the volumes of this work 
are " The Jesuits in North America," " La Salle, or the Dis- 
covery of the Great West," and " Montcalm and Wolfe." 



GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 187 

VI. Recent Writers 

310. Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain) (1835-1910) is Amer- 
ica's foremost humorist. As a young man he was a pilot on 
the Mississippi River. By his beautiful and vivid descriptions 
he gave this river a place in literature similar to that given by 
Irving to the Hudson. His best known works are the two 
" bad boy " books, " Tom Sawyer " and " Huckleberry Finn." 
Among his numerous works are " Innocents Abroad," " Rough- 
ing It," " The Prince and the Pauper," and " A Connecticut 
Yankee in King Arthur's Court." 

311. Two of our greatest novelists are William Dean Howells 
(1837-) and Henry James (1843-1916). The principal works 
of the former are " The Lady of the Aroostook," " The Rise of 
Silas Lapham," " A Modern Instance," and " A Hazard of New 
Fortunes." 

James's principal works are " The Americans," " Daisy 
Miller," "The Bostonians," "Partial Portraits," etc. Both 
Howells and James represent what is termed " Realism " in 
fiction. 

312. Eugene Field (1850-95) will long be remembered for 
his beautiful and quaint poems of childhood. His best known 
poem is " Little Boy Blue." 

313. James Whitcomb Riley (1852-1916), the " Hoosier 
Poet," has written numerous poems showing a keen apprecia- 
tion of child life. Many of them are in dialect. A good 
illustration of his style is found in the popular " Little 
Orphant Annie." 



CHAPTER XIV 
PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY AND OF THE NEAR FUTURE 

Retrospect and Prospect. — 314. 

Expansion. — 315. Recent Acquisition of Territory — Imperialism. 

Arbitration. — 31(). Hague Peace Conferences — Recent Wars. 

A League to Enforce Peace. — 317. 

The Great Nations and Enforcement of Peace. — 318. 

Great Industrial Problems. — 31'.). Trust.s, Monopolies, Socialism. 

Labor Troubles. — 32i». Labor Unions, Strikes, Arbitration. 

Social Legislation. — 321. 

Preparedness. — 322. 

Civil Service Reform. — 323. Rotation in OflQce — Competitive Exami- 
nations. 

Reforms in State and City Government. —324. Initiative, Refer- 
(iidiun, Kerall — Direct rriniaries. 

City Government — 325. National and City Politics — City Ownership. 

Race Problems. — 326. The Negroes — Right of Suffrage — Education 
— The Indians — Mongolians. 

The Temperance Question. — 327. Prohibition — Education. 

"Woman Suffrage. — 328. 

Americanization of the Foreigner. — 329. 



188 



CHAPTER XIV 

PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY AND OF THE NEAR KUTURE 

314. Retrospect and Prospect. — We have seen how the 
United States of America has, from very small beginnings, 
developed into the powerful nation of to-day. The principal 
European nations of four hundred years ago all took active 
part in the exploration and colonization of the ISTew World. 
The struggle for supremacy among these nations at last nar- 
rowed down to a contest between the English and the French, 
which was finally settled by the battle of Quebec (1759). (See 
§§ 52-58.) England became supreme, i.e. the English language 
and traditions were henceforth to dominate North America. 
Meanwhile an independent spirit had been growing among the 
English colonists. This spirit and the idea of union were 
encouraged by the intercolonial wars, and finally led to com- 
plete separation from England (1776) and the establishment of 
a republican government (1789). The success of the new nation 
was assured by the " Second War for Independence " (the 
War of 1812). Meanwhile, in spite of severe! serious foreign 
complications, and a great civil war which threatened the 
integrity of the nation, the United States has grown in area 
and population ; popular education has been extended ; an 
important literature developed ; and marvellous progress has 
been made in science and the useful arts. Many of the difficult 
problems which the nation had to face have been satisfactorily 
settled, e.g. slavery. There remain many questions, however, 
which are to-day pressing for solution, and upon which there 
are various and conflicting opinions. These questions require 
careful study in order that they may be dealt with fairly, 
honestly, and wisely. 

189 



190 SURVEY OF unitp:d states history 

315. Expansion. — The Spanish-American War made expan- 
sion one of the great questions of that day for the American 
people. During the progress of the war, Hawaii was annexed, 
and by our treaty of peace with Spain we acquired Porto Rico 
and the great Philippine archipelago. The inhabitants of these 
Asiatic islands are of such a different degree of civiliza- 
tion as to render it a doubtful (question whether it would be 
wise to make them United States citizens. There are many 
• who believe them to be incapable of self-government, and think 
that the United States should retain these islands as dependen- 
cies to be governed somewhat in the same Avay as England 
governs her colonies. Others maintain that the fact that these 
islands are now United States territory makes their inhabitants 
virtually United States citizens, and that they ought not to be 
denied any of the privileges of citizenship. Moreover, it is 
contended that governing other people without their consent 
is contrary to the principles of our government. It is said 
that such expansion necessitates military rule, and hence a 
large standing army. The President, as Commander-in-Chief, 
would thus exercise a large measure of power over the people 
of the islands. This was termed imperialism and for a time 
was an important political issue. 

On the other hand, it is said that the United States would be 
shirking a great duty to refuse to undertake the government of 
its new jjossessions, that its withdrawal would result in con- 
fusion and anarchy, and that, in the case of the Philippines 
whose native population at lirst resisted our authority, military 
rule is absolutely necessary. Moreover, it is said that the 
United States can no longer hold aloof from other nations, but 
that political and commercial considerations demand that it 
should have possessions in various portions of the globe. On 
the other hand, the Democratic platform of 1912 favored " an 
immediate declaration of the nation's purpose to recognize the 
independence of the Philippine Islands as soon as a stable 
government can be established," and President Wilson, in 1913, 
took measures looking to the increased self-government of the 



PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 191 

islands. In his appointments to the upper house of the 
Philippine legislature, he definitely secured a majority of na- 
tives, and also opened to them various governmental positions. 

316. Arbitration. — One of the great questions in which the 
whole world, as well as the United States, is interested is the 
substitution of the method of arbitration for that of war in 
the settlement of disputes between nations. The settlement of 
the Oregon boundary, the Alabama claims, and the Bering Sea 
controversy are notable instances in the history of our own 
country of the benefits of this method. In the first decade of 
the twentieth century, more than twenty disputes between the 
United States and other nations were settled by arbitration. 
The whole Christian world tends to look upon war as a revolt- 
ing and barbarous spectacle. It is argued that, as individuals 
no longer use brute force to settle disputes, but appeal to law 
and reason, nations should act likewise. 

A permanent tribunal to which all matters in dispute could 
be referred for settlement has been suggested. At the sugges- 
tion of the Czar of Russia, an important beginning was made, 
in May, 1899, at the Hague, where representatives from twenty- 
six nations met in a congress known as the " Hague Peace 
Conference." Numerous suggestions were made tending to 
lessen the horrors of warfare and to encourage arbitration. It 
was found impracticable, however, to bring about the much 
wished for condition of universal peace. The South African 
War and the trouble between China and the Powers occurred 
soon after the Peace Conference. These wars disclosed such a 
sharp contrast between the peace professions of the nations and 
their actual practice, that they shook the confidence of many in 
the possibility of substituting arbitration for war, and tended 
to bring the Hague Conference into ridicule. Nevertheless, the 
conference brought about the establishment of the international 
court of arbitration, which has settled many international dis- 
putes. It meets in the Hague, in a beautiful building erected 
by the great American philanthropist, Andrew Carnegie. One 
of the troublesome questions settled by this court concerned 



192 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the rights of Americans in the fishing bank off Newfoundland 
(1910). A second Peace Conference was suggested by President 
Roosevelt, but was actually called together by the Czar of Russia. 
It met at the Hague in 1907, in the Peace palace. Representa- 
tives of forty-four nations attended this conference. Its chief re- 
sult was the recommendation of a Supreme Court of the World 
to settle all international disputes. The creation of such a court 
has not yet materialized. A third peace Conference was to have 
been held in 1915, but the great European war prevented it. 

The United States, by virtue of its geographical position and 
freedom from foreign entanglements, has been able to exert a 
great influence in favor of arbitration. Especially in the 
Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson administrations, it has taken great 
strides toward the goal of peaceful settlement of international 
disputes. William J. Pryan, an ardent believer in the merits 
of arbitration as a means of averting war, originated the idea 
that nations should agree in advance that in case any serious 
differences should arise between them they would not go to 
war for a period of at least a year, and that meanwhile the dif- 
ferences should be sul)mitted for investigation and report to an 
international commission carefully selected for this purpose. 
Such agreement was not to bind the nations to accept the 
report of the commission investigating the rival claims ; but it 
was felt that during the year or more of " diplomatic postpone- 
ment " that the question of war was held in abeyance, the 
countries in antagonism would have time "to cool off" and 
would therefore be more likely to settle their disagreements on 
the basis of reason and justice rather than by force of arms. 
While he was Seci-etary of State in j\lr. Wilson's Cabinet, ]\[r. 
Bryan succeeded in negotiating thirty treaties of this charac- 
ter between the United States and some of the great nations of 
Europe, and several South American repul)lics. 

317. A League to Enforce Peace. — Almost while these 
arbitration treaties were being executed, the world war, as it 
has been called because almost all the great nations of the 
earth became involved, broke out (1914). This terrible con- 



PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 193 

flict convinced many of the leading statesmen of the world of 
the uselessness of peace conferences and of arbitration treaties 
that were not, in some way, backed up by force. 

A number of persons holding this view, and, at the same 
time, strongly opposed to war with its devastation and other 
unspeakable horrors, met and formed an Association called the 
" League to Enforce Peace." Mr. Taft, a former President of 
the United States, was made President of the League. It is 
the expressed object of the League to bring about an agreement 
between the great nations of the world by which hearings of 
the questions in dispute may be had and a decision rendered 
before war is allowed to begin. It would also provide a mili- 
tary and naval force by which the agreements of the associated 
nations could be enforced, if necessary. Such an agreement 
w^ould, in effect, constitute a League of Nations, or a World 
Federation, which would provide properly organized tribunals 
before which nations in dispute would be obliged to submit 
their case before going to war and which would use the power 
of the whole group to compel such action. It is the belief of 
those who advocate such an international league that, in most 
cases, a war thus delayed for a full discussion of the issues and 
a fair decision Avould be averted. 

318. The Great Nations and Enforcement of Peace. — During 
the world conflict, President Wilson addressed a note to the 
warring nations (1916) suggesting that they state the conditions 
under which they would be willing to agree to peace. He in- 
cluded in the note the further suggestion that means of enforc- 
ing peace for the future be considered by all the nations of the 
world. In their replies both groups of allied powers indicated 
their sympathy with such a program. Later Mr. Wilson ad- 
dressed the Senate in person, urging world peace. In this 
address he set forth the principles that if such peace is to be 
lasting it must be founded on an equality of rights for big and 
little nations alike ; that the nations should limit their arma- 
ments ; that the Munroe doctrine should be adopted as the 
doctrine of the world, and that every nation should be left free 



194 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to govern itself in its own way. He also proposed that all na- 
tions unite in a concert of power to act in the common interest 
and live under common protection. 

The working out of the details of a plan for the judicial set- 
tlement of international disputes and the enforcement of the 
decisions of a world tribunal is a difficult, but, it is hoped, not 
insuperable task. It would only be applying to the interna- 
tional community the same principle that has been applied to 
the domestic community, that of using the force of all to sup- 
press the lawless force of the few for the common good. The 
necessity of satisfactorily solving this great problem is one of the 
lessons taught by the stupendous conflict which has itself seemed 
to set at nauglit all the great teachings of modern civilization. 

319. Great Industrial Problems. — During the last few years 
great changes have taken place in the methods of conducting 
Imsiness enterprises. Large combinations of capital are formed 
for the purpose of controlling the manufacture and sale of im- 
portant products. These combinations, known as trusts, are able 
to administer business affairs more economically than the great 
imniber of small conceriis which they replace. Just as the 
invention of machinery has benefited the world by cheapening 
goods, so improved business methods might be expected to pro- 
duce a similar result. Unfortunately, many of the so-called 
trusts have endeavored to secure monopolies and to use their 
power to raise prices instead of lowering them, thus benefiting 
the few in control at the expense of the multitude who are 
forced to purchase their products. This undoubted evil has 
caused a widespread fear of the power of trusts, and created 
great opposition to such combinations of capital. Many state 
legislatures have framed laws for the i)ur})ose of limiting the 
power of trusts or of preventing their formation. Tlie (pies- 
tion of the regulation of trusts by the national government 
has become an important one. 

In the early part of Benjamin Harrison's administration, 
Congress had passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Law, " An Act 
to protect trade and commerce against unlawful restraints and 



PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 195 

monopolies." A few years before, an Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission of five members had been appointed. It had power 
to investigate inter-state railroads and hold public hearings on 
rates. The Anti-Trust law has brought about the dissolution 
of several large corporations, and the Supreme Court has been 
compelled to decide what constitutes unlawful restraint on 
trade. In the famous Watch Trust case of 1915 the Court 
said : " It is reasonable to say that when a large business has 
proved itself to be beneficial and not harmful to the commu- 
nity, it should not be condemned because it is large." 

Many think that the government should exercise a very 
strict control over trusts, while others believe that such con- 
trol is neither possible nor desirable. They regard such com- 
binations when honestly conducted as legitimate forms of 
business enterprise. The question is a perplexing one. 8ome 
are of the opinion that ordinary legislation cannot solve the 
problem, but that a number of large business or industrial 
enterprises, especially those called " natural monopolies," such 
as telegraphs, railroads, telephones, gas, and water supply, 
should not be private enterprises at all, but should be owned 
and operated by the government itself. 

There are some who would carry the principle of govern- 
ment ownership to an extreme, making it embrace many other 
forms of business enterprise. Those who advocate this prin- 
ciple are known as socialists. In some sections of the country 
these ideas have become (|uite prevalent, becoming political 
issues or even giving rise to distinct political parties. 

320. Labor Troubles. — Just as capitalists have found it to 
their advantage to form combinations, so the laboring classes 
have also formed unions for the protection of their interests. 
The industrial world is thus divided into classes, often spoken 
of as labor and capital, though each is dependent upon the other. 
The labor unions have frequently made demands upon their em- 
ployers for higher wages, shorter hours, etc. These demands 
coming from large organizations of laborers, sometimes num- 
bering thousands of members, frequently have sufficient weight 



196 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

with the employers to lead them to accede to the demands. 
When the demands are not acceded to, strikes are apt to result, 
causing great business inconvenience and frequently affecting 
directly or indirectly the entire community. Sometimes the 
strikers resort to violence in order to intimidate their employers, 
or to prevent other workmen from taking their places. It has 
been necessary, on some occasions, for troops to be called out 
to quell such disturbances. It is unfortunate that capital and 
labor should be regarded as naturally antagonistic, as this 
view hinders the amicable adjustment of difficulties between 
them. On account of the riotous conduct attendant on strikes 
and the serious consequences to all the people, many are of the 
opinion that labor unions should be discouraged. It is thought 
b}- others, however, that the laboring classes are much in need 
of such organizations for their own protection. Boards of 
arbitration have been proposed to mediate betAveen laborers 
and employers in case of disagreement. Socialism has also been 
suggested as a remedy. In 1913, Congress unanimously voted 
for the establishment of a Board of ^Mediation and Conciliation 
to be appointed by the President. This Board, together with 
its sub-committees on arbitration, has prevented or settled a 
large number of strikes. It has jurisdiction only in difficulties 
arising between interstate railroads and their employes. 

321. Social Legislation. — There is an increasing tendency 
to look to the government for control of these matters and to 
enact legislation for the purpose of preventing labor troubles 
as far as jjossible by establishing proper conditions of work 
and thus removing the causes of the discontent which leads to 
strikes and other disturbances in the industrial world. Laws 
have been passed which hx the hours of labor, especially that 
of women and children, which establish hygienic conditions in 
working places, which safeguard the workers against injury 
and occupational diseases, and which provide compensation in 
case of accident or death. Attempts have also been made to 
fix by law the minimum wages that shall be paid in certain 
occupations. Employment agencies under public control 



PROBLEMS OF TO DAY 197 

which endeavor to solve the problem of unemployment and 
make easy the shift of an excess of workers in one occupation 
or locality to others where they may be profitably employed 
have also been organized. Insurance against illness and old 
age furnished by the State with minimum cost to the par- 
ticipants in the system has also been proposed. The various 
forms of state insurance and such measures as the Workmen's 
Compensation Act and minimum wage laws are commonly 
known as social legislation. There is a strong public senti- 
ment in favor of such measures, and it seems probable that 
there will be much legislation of this character enacted in the 
future by both State and Nation. 

322. Preparedness. — One of the lessons taught by the world 
war was the necessity for a country's being prepared to meet 
the stern realities of war. England, for example, found that 
getting an army of volunteers ready for the field was a long 
and arduous task involving weary months of training to fit the 
men for the duties and hardships of modern warfare and even 
longer time to secure the necessary equipment. Manufacturing 
the heavy artillery and other armament and the enormous 
quantities of ammunition needed was a still more difficult and 
time-consuming task. To accomplish these England found it 
necessary radically to reorganize the industries of the Empire, 
and while this was being done suffered almost incalculable losses. 

When there was danger that the United States would be 
drawn into the world conflict, its lack of preparation was 
apparent. The problem of preparedness assumed great im- 
portance and became a subject of universal interest and dis- 
cussion. There were some so-called jjacifists who held that 
" preparedness " instead of preventing, encouraged war ; but 
others maintained a reasonable measure of preparedness to be 
necessary in order that a nation might protect its citizens at 
home and abroad and by its known readiness to defend itself 
prevent aggression by other countries. Even those who 
differed concerning specific preparedness for war in the form 
of maintaining a large army and navy, agreed on the necessity 



198 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

of general preparedness through the reorganization of the 
educational, social, industrial, and economic forces of the 
country so as to secure the elimination of waste in all depart- 
ments of the national life, the conservation of physical and 
humane resources, and the promotion of efficiency in both 
public and private work. How best to accomplish this kind 
of preparedness is one of the great and continuing problems 
for the United States and all other countries. The countries 
engaged in the world war have been taught the lesson by the 
harsh discipline of disaster, and many of them have reorganized 
their national life with a view to these great ends. The 
United States must make similar reorganization if it is to 
keep in the vanguard of world progress. 

323. Civil Service Reform. — The government finds it nec- 
essary to employ a great many persons to carry on its work. 
With the exception of those who serve in the army and navy, 
these officials, clerks, etc., constitute the civil service. When 
Jefferson entered office, his political friends clamored for posi- 
tions in the civil service. Jefferson was of the opinion that it 
was neither just nor in his power to remove office-holders to make 
places for others, except for incompetency or neglect of duty. 
He depended upon the creation of vacancies through death or 
resignation ; but, as he tersely said in speaking of the office- 
holders, " Few die and none resign." It was not until Jackson's 
administration that a wholesale discharge of United States 
officials took place. He instituted the practice known as "ro- 
tation in office," displacing his political opponents to create 
places for his political friends. The same justification was 
urged for this method as had been given by the ancient 
Romans when they sacked a conquered town, " To the victors 
belong the spoils." Political positions thus came to be regarded 
as rewards for political work, and it became the custom with 
every change of administration to turn out incumbents to make 
places for the party workers. In opposition to the spoils sys- 
tem, it is believed by many that the government's business 
affairs should be conducted in a business-like manner. Faith- 



PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 199 

ful and competent servants should be retained, regardless of 
their political opinions ; while incompetent persons should not 
be appointed to positions. Moreover, it is argued that the fre- 
quent changes make the service both inefficient and .expensive. 
Again it is contended that the rewarding of party service by 
appointment to government positions is only a form of bribery. 
The various attempts that have been made to remedy these 
evils are known as civil service reform. The hrst great step 
in this direction was made in 1883, when an act was passed by 
Congress making appointments to certain positions dependent 
upon the results of competitive examinations. A commission 
was appointed to sui^ervise this work. Those who believe in 
civil service reform have endeavored to increase as much as 
possible the list of offices to be thus filled. They have been 
opposed by those politicians who fear a loss of power through 
such interference with their power of distributing positions. 

Many of the Presidents of the United States, especially in 
recent years, have been in sympathy with improvement in the 
civil service and have from time to time by executive orders 
extended the scope of operation of the civil service regulations. 
There remains, however, much to be done, not only in the 
national, but in the State and Municipal civil service to put it 
upon a proper basis. Until this is done many of the measures 
for national preparedness cannot be successfully employed. 

324. Reforms in State and City Government. — Since the 
early years of the twentieth century, a number of radical 
changes have been suggested in our methods of governmental 
procedure. Those which have been most widely adopted at- 
tempt to give a larger measure of power and responsibility to 
the people themselves. The initiative is the name given to 
the plan of permitting a certain designated number of voters 
to frame a law and submit it either to popular vote or to the 
legislature. There are now about twenty states in which the 
initiative is permitted in one form or another. 

Another reform of the same character is known as the 
referendum, by which is meant that upon the demand of a cer- 



200 SUEVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

tain number of voters, any bill passed by the legislative body 
must be submitted to the people of the state or city before it 
can become a law. Many states had used the referendum in 
connection with amending their constitutions, but there is a 
growing tendency to apply the principle Avidely to all forms 
of legislation. 

By the recall is meant the power to remove from office by 
popular vote. In 1912, for example, the people of Seattle, 
Washington, where this privilege is permitted, removed their 
mayor and held another election. The Recall exists in various 
forms in different states. Opinion is divided as to just how 
far it should apply. Many tliink that Roosevelt and the Pro- 
gressive party went too far in advocating the application of the 
principle to judges and especially to judicial decisions. Initia- 
tive, referendum, and the recall are found in most cities under 
the commission form of government. 

Direct and preferential primaries have been adopted in many 
states, as the old method of nominating by means of conventions 
has been getting more cumbersome and further removed from 
a true expression of the popular will. 

325. City Government. — As the United States has grown 
in population, there has been an increasing tendency to the 
massing of large numbers of people in great cities. (See 
§ 239.) A number of cities have populations of over a million. 
This condition has given rise to many difficult })roblems in 
government. The tendency has been for national })oliti('s to 
determine the election of city officers. It is generally admitted 
that city government should be entirely disentangled from 
yiational politics, since the proper regulation of city affairs has 
little or nothing to do with the issues- which divide the great 
parties. The political management of city affairs has often 
resulted in inefficient, extravagant, and corrupt administration. 
It is maintained that the questions which city authorities have 
to decide are very diiferent from those which face the state or 
nation. They are simply business problems on a large scale, 
and should be dealt with in a business-like manner ; e.g. the 



PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 201 

streets must be kept clean and lighted, transportation facilities 
furnished, schools built and maintained, good water supply- 
secured, police regulations enforced, etc. The use of the spoils 
system in city government — since the latter is in effect a busi- 
ness corporation — has been attended with great evils. Private 
corporations sometimes secure from city officials valuable fran- 
chises, such as gas and water supply, street railways, etc., 
through corrupt political means. City ownership has been sug- 
gested as a remedy for these evils. Others, however, maintain 
that under our present political administration of city affairs 
such municipal control would only multiply the evils it is meant 
to cure. Some city charters have been drawn up which hope 
to get the cities under good business management by the cre- 
ation of a few great departments, the heads of which can be 
held strictly responsible. 

Another method of city government known as the Commis- 
sion form has become popular. The City of Galveston was 
forced by a great disaster, the flooding of the city by a terrific 
storm and tidal wave (1900), to take extraordinary means to 
re-establish itself. It appointed a small commission to manage 
the affairs of the city. The success of this experiment was 
so marked that the Commission form of city government 
became very popular, and more than three hundred and lifty 
cities are now governed in this way. Another method of city 
government which aims to be non-partisan and business-like, 
has grown out of the commission form. It consists in the 
election of a City Manager who conducts the business of the 
city somewhat as a President or Superintendent of a large 
business enterprise would conduct its affairs. More than thirty 
.cities are now conducted iinder the City Manager plan. It is 
claimed that both the Commission form of government and 
the City ISIanager plan have proved to be economical and effi- 
cient, and that many traditional evils of municipal government 
have been overcome. The future development and success of 
such plans depend upon the degree in which their ideal of non- 
partisan management for the good of all the people is realized. 



202 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

326. Race Problems. — Since the adoption of the Thirteenth, 
Fouiteentli, and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution, the 
treatment of the negroes of the South has been a most serious 
problem. In some sections of the South the colored inhab- 
tants outnumber the whites, and the latter have feared that 
legislation might be controlled by the negroes. This fear has 
increased the hatred caused by natural race prejudice and the 
events of the Civil War. Race riots have sometimes occurred, 
and the negroes have frequently been subjected to inhuman 
treatment. Bribery and intimidation have })revented the negro 
from freely exercising the right of suffrage. Some have en- 
deavored to justify this on the ground that the negro is too 
ignorant to vote intelligently. Attempts have been made in 
some states recently to debar the illiterate negro by law from 
voting by demanding certain educational qualifications. Such 
restriction of the ballot would be at the risk of a reduction in 
tlie state's representation iia Congress, in proportion to the 
nuni]>er of votes thus excluded, (See Amendment XIV, Sec- 
tion 2.) Education of the negro is the remedy most freciuently 
advanced for the solution of this important problem. The 
treatment of the Indians (see § 139), Chinese, and Japanese 
are race problems whicli are not as yet quite satisfat-torily 
settled. 

327. The Temperance Question. — The evils of intemperance 
have been so great that many favor the prohibition of the 
manufacture and sale of alcoholic lic^uors. Others, on the con- 
trary, regard such legislation as directly opposed to personal 
liberty and as impossible of enforcement. They consider this 
work as not the business of the government at all, but an end 
to be attained rather by moral education. They look to the 
growing influence of religious and temperance societies, tem- 
perance literature, and temperance instruction in the public 
schools to bring about the desired result. Nevertheless, the 
movement for prohibition has been steadily gathering strength. 
The attempt has already been made to enact a national 
prohibition law, and the advocates of such measure claim 



PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 203 

that the attempt will soon be renewed with good prospect of 
success. 

328. Woman Suffrage. — AVomen have greater privileges in 
the United States than in many other parts of the civilized 
world. For many years there have been societies organized 
for the purpose of securing for women the right of suif rage. 
At the present the woman suffrage is allowed in Wyoming, 
Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Washington, California, Arizona, Kan- 
sas, Oregon, Illinois (partial), Nevada, Montana, Alaska, Indi- 
ana (partial), Michigan (partial). North Dakota (partial), Ohio 
(partial), and Rhode Island (partial), and the movement is 
rapidly gaining strength. Its advocates are endeavoring to 
secure an amendment to the constitution that will give the 
vote to women on an equal basis with men throughout the 
Ignited States. 

329. Americanization of the Foreigner. — The extent of the 
admixture of foreign elements in our population due to immi- 
gration is indicated by the census returns which show that 
more than one-third of the people living in the United States 
are either foreign-born or of foreign-born parentage. This is 
a truly remarkable condition. It is especially important in 
a democracy where the people make their own laws and 
govern themselves that such a condition should be clearly 
recognized and that provision be made to assimilate the various 
foreign elements as rapidly and completely as possible. The 
foreigner should be taught to understand the laws, to respect 
the institutions, and to become a patriotic citizen of the 
country he has adopted as a home. 

With a view to assisting in the solution of this j)roblem the 
])e})artment of the Interior of the United States Government 
has entered upon a nation-wide campaign for the Americaniza- 
tion of the foreigner. It has enlisted the interest and support 
of Chambers of Commerce and other civic organizations in 
this work, the movement has acc^uired great strength, and 
much good has been accomplished. One of the most impor- 
tant agencies cooperating with the United States Government 



204 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 

for this purpose is the pul)lic school. In many cities, the 
schools have established evening classes for foreigners, and in 
some places day classes for those who work at night. In 
these classes English, including both oral and written lan- 
guage, and civics, with special reference to the meaning and 
purpose of American laws and institutions, are taught. The 
foreigners attending evening schools are also grouped in 
" Naturalization Classes " in which they are assisted in fill- 
ing out their application papers and given other practical 
instruction in preparation for the examinations they must 
take in order to become " naturalized citizens " of this coun- 
try. A certificate showing that the applicant has completed 
the work of the evening schools is sometimes accepted instead 
of an examination. The United States Uovernment is en- 
couraging the schools to do this work and is assisting them 
in many ways. 

Thus the schools and other patriotic agencies are endeavor- 
ing to promote the work of " The Melting Pot." As Israel 
Zangwill describes it : 

" America is God's crucible, where all the races of 
Europe are melting and re-forming. . . . Here you 
stand, good folks, think I, in your fifty groups, Avith 
your fifty languages, but you won't be long like that, 
brothers ; for these are the fires of God you have come 
to, these are the fires of God. A fig for your feuds and 
vendettas. Germans and Frenchmen, Irishmen and 
Englishmen, Jews and Russians, into the crucible with 
you all ! God is making the American." 
A little high-school girl of Russian birth, reading these 
lines, wrote : 

" How true are these words, and do the}^ not show the 
elements which inspired Zangwill to call America the 
crucible ? If you could take a l)ird"s eye view of every 
country in the world you would not find elsewhere such 
a mixture of foreign people and foreign languages as 
here in America, and do you wonder at this ? What 



PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 205 

other country holds before the people such liberty to 
act, and do, according to their instinct as America? 
Free education, free speech, and rights of citizenship, 
which includes the two mentioned, greet the newcomer 
as he lands on the shores of the free land. It is only 
three years since I, myself, first felt the wonderful spirit 
of America." 
And similarly, another wrote : 

" To Israel Zangwill, America is a great melting pot, 

where the evil is cast away and the good remains. Here 

the posterities of all the races will forget their ancient 

grudges, and will strive for one thing together — to 

become true Americans." 

The phrase " and the good remains " used by the young 

writer is in agreement with the views of many older students 

of this problem who have pointed out that the simile of the 

" melting pot " should not be interpreted to mean that in the 

Americanization process the foreigners are to be cast into one 

rigid mold ; rather are these " strangers within our gates " to 

be encouraged to conserve their national heritage, each racial 

group making its contribution to American life in craft and 

culture, art, and ideals. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 



(1) We, the people of the United States, in order to forma 

more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- 
quillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general 
welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and 
our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for 
the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

SECTION I. 

(2) All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a 
Senate and House of Representatives. 

SECTION II. 

(3) The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the sev- 
eral States, and the electors in each State shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the State legislature. 

(4) No person shall be a Representative who shall not have 
attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

(5) Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 

1 



2 CONSTITUTION OF 

among the several States which may be included within this 
Union, according to their respective numbers, Avhich shall be 
determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, 
including those bound to service for a term of years, and ex- 
cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. 
The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after 
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 
within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as 
they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives 
shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State 
shall have at least one Representative ; and until such enu- 
meration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be 
entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations one,. Connecticut five, Neiv York 
six, Hew Jersei/ four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary- 
land six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina 
five, and Georgia three. 

(6) When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of 
election to fill such vacancies. 

(7) The House of Representatives shall choose their Speak- 
er and other officers, and shall have the sole power of im- 
peachment. 

SECTION III. 

(8) The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature there- 
of, for six years ; and each Senator sliall have one vote. 

(9) Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- 
quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally 
as may be into three classes. The seats of tlie Senators of 
the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second 
year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year, 
and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if 



UNITED STATES. 3 

vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the 
recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof 
may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of 
the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

(10) No person shall be a Senator who shall not have at- 
tained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

(11) The Vice-President of the United States shall be 
President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they 
be equally divided. 

(12) The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also 
a President 2>ro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, 
or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United 
States. 

(13) The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im- 
peachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on 
oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : and no person 
shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of 
the members present. 

(14) Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend 
further than to removal from office, and disqualification to 
hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the 
United States ; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be 
liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punish- 
ment, according to law. 

SECTION IV. 

(15) The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each 
State by the legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any 
time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the 
places of choosing Senators, 

(16) The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, 



4 CONSTITUTION OP 

and such meeting shall be on the first ^Monday in December, 
unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 

SECTION V. 

(17) Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, 
and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each 
shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller num- 
ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to 
compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, 
and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 

(18) Each house may determine ttie rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the 
concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

(19) Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as 
may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays 
of the members of either house on any question shall, at the 
desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

(20) Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three 
days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses 
shall be sitting. 

SECTION' VI. 

(21) The Senators and Representatives shall receive a com- 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid 
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in all 
cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace be privi- 
leged from arrest during their attendance at the session of 
their respective houses, and in going to and returning from 
the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they 
shall not be questioned in any other place. 

(22) No Senator or Representative shall, during the time 
for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under 
the authority of the United States, which shall have been 
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased 



UliJlTED STATES. 5 

during such time ; and no person holding any. office under the 
United States shall be a member of either house during his 
continuance in office. 

SECTION VII. 

(23) All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or 
concur with amendments as on other bills. 

(24) Every bill which shall have passed the House of 
Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, 
be presented to the President of the United States ; if he 
approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his 
objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, 
who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two- 
thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be 
sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by 
which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by 
two-thirds of that house it shall become a law. But in all 
such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by 
yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and 
against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house 
respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- 
dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have 
been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjourn- 
ment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

(25) Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur- 
rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be 
necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre- 
sented to the President of the United States ; and before the 
same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being 
disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules 
and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 



CONSTITUTION OF 



SECTION VIII. 



(26) The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and pro- 
vide for the common defence and general welfare of the 
United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be 
uniform throughout the United States -, 

(27) To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

(28) To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among 
the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

(29) To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and 
uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the 
United States ; 

(30) To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for- 
eign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

(31) To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United States ; 

(32) To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 

(33) To promote the progress of science and useful arts by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclu- 
sive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; 

(34) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

(35) To define and punish piracies and felonies committed 
on the high seas and offences against the law of nations ; 

(36) To declare war, grant letters of marque ai.d reprisal, 
and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

(37) To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

(38) To provide and maintain a navy ; 

(39) To make rules for the government and regulation of 
the land and naval forces ; 

(40) To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel jnva- 
Bions ; 

(41) To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining 



UNITED STATES. 7 

the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be 
employed in the service of the United States, reserving to 
the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and 
the authority of training the militia according to the disci- 
pline prescribed by Congress ; 

(42) To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso- 
ever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as 
may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of 
Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United 
States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- 
chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and 

(43) To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other 
powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the 
United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX. 

(44) The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall 
not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thou- 
sand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im- 
posed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each 
person. 

(45) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion 
the public safety may require it. 

(46) No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 
passed. 

(47) No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless 
in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore 
directed to be taken. 

(48) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from 
any State. 



8 CONSTITUTION OF 

(49) N"o preference shall be given by any regulation of 
commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of 
another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be 
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

(50) ISo money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in 
consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular 
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all 
public money shall be published from time to time. 

(51) No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
States ; and no person holding any office of proiit or trust 
under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept 
of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind, what- 
ever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. 

SECTION X. 

(52) No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; 
emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin 
a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex 
post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, 
or grant any title of nobility. 

(53) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay 
any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may 
be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and 
the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State 
on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of 
the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the 
revision and control of the Congress. 

(54) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay 
any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of 
peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another 
State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
actually invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit 
of delay. 



UNITED STATES. 9 

ARTICLE II. 

SECTION I. 

(55) The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during 
the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, 
chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 

(56) Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legis- 
lature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the 
whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the 
State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or 
Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit 
under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

[The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote 
by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of 
votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, 
directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Rep- 
resentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes 
shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more 
than one who have such majority, and have an equal number 
of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately 
choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person 
have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
House shall in like manner choose the President. But in 
choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- 
thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be 
necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the 



10 CONSTITUTION OF 

President, the person having the greatest number of votes of 
the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should 
remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall 
choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] ^ 

(57) The Congress may determine the time of choosing the 
electors and the day on which they shall give their votes, 
which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

(58) No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of 
the United States at the time of the adoption of this Consti- 
tution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither 
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have 
attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen 
years a resident within the United States. 

(59) In case of the removal of the President from office, or 
of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers 
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the 
case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of 
the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall 
then act- as President, and such officer shall act accordingly 
until the disability be removed or the President shall be 
elected. 

(60) The President shall, at stated times, receive for his 
services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
diminished during the period for which he may have been 
elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other 
emolument from the United States or any of them. 

(61) Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation : 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully exe- 
cute the office of President of the United States, and will to 
the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Con- 
stitution of the United States." 

' Tliis clause of the Constitution has been amended. See twelfth article of the 
amendments. 



UNITED STATES. It 

SECTION II. 

(62) The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of 
the several States when called into the actual service of the 
United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, c*^^ the 
principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon 
any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, 
and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardone for 
offences against the United States, except in cases of impeach- 
ment. 

(63) He shall have power, by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of 
the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by 
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint 
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the 
Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, 
whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, 
and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may 
by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they 
think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or 
in the heads of departments. 

(64) The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting 
commissions which shall expire at the end of their next- 
session. 

SECTION III. 

(65) He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor- 
mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their 
consideration such measures as he shall jndge necessary and 
expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement be- 
tween them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may 
adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take 



12 CONSTITUTION OF 

care that the la.ws be faithfully executed, and shall commis- 
sion, all the oflBcers of the United States. 

SECTION IV. 

(66) The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of 
the United States shall be removed from office on impeach- 
ment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high 
crimes and misdemeanors. 



ARTICLE lU 

SECTION I. 

(67) The judicial power of the United States shall be 
vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as 
the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. 
The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall 
hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated 
times, receive for their services a compensation which shall 
not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

SECTION II. 

(68) The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their 
authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall 
be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; be- 
tween a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens 
of different States ; between citizens of the same State claim- 
ing lands under grants of different States, and between a 
State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or 
subjects. 

(69) In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public min- 
isters and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a 



UNITED STATES. IS 

party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In 
all the other cases before mentioned the Supreme Court shall 
have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such 
exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall 
make. 

(70) The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, 
shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State 
where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when 
not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such 
place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

SECTION III. 

(71) Treason againsi; the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giv- 
ing them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of 
treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
overt act, or on confession in open court. 

(72) The Congress shall have power to declare the punish- 
ment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work cor- 
ruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the 
person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

SECTION I. 

(73) Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the 
manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be 
proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION II. 

(74) The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi- 
leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

(75) A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or 
other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another 



14 CONSTITUTION OF 

State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State 
from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the 
State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

(76) No person held to service or labor in one State, under 
the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence 
of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such 
service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the 
party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

SECTION III. 

(77) New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by 
the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without 
the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well 
as of the Congress. 

(78) The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make 
all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or 
other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing 
in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any 
claims of the United States or of any particular State. 

SECTION IV. 

(79) The United States shall guarantee to every State in 
this Union a republican form of government, and shall pro- 
tect each of them against invasion, and on application of the 
legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot 
be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

(80) The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses 
shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this 
Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two- 
thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro- 



TJNITED STATES. 15 

posing amendments, which in either case shall be valid to all 
intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when rati- 
fied by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, 
or by conventions m three-fourths thereof, as the one or the 
other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress, 
provided that no amendments which may be made prior to the 
year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner 
affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the 
first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be 
deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

(81) All debts contracted and engagements entered into, 
before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid 
against the United States under this Constitution as under 
the confederation. 

(82) This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under the autiiority of the 
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the 
judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in 
the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- 
withstanding. 

(83) The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, 
and the members of the several State legislatures, and all 
executive and judicial officers both of the United States and 
of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to 
support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be 
required as a qualification to any office or public trust under 
the United States. 

ARTICLE VIL 

(84) The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall 
be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between 
the States so ratifying the same. 



16 CONSTITUTION OF 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the 
States present, the seventeenth day of September, in 
the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and 
eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United 
States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, 
we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. 

New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 
Massachusetts — ISTathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. 
Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. 
New York — Alexander Hamilton. 
New Jersey — William Livingston, David Brearly, William 

Patterson, Jonathan Dayton. 
Pennsylvania — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert 

Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Inger- 

soll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. 
Delaware — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dick« 

inson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. 
Maryland — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 

Daniel Carroll. 
Virginia — John Blair, James Madison, Jr. 
North Carolina — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, 

Hugh Williamson. 
South Carolina — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinck- 

ney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. 
Georgia — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. 

Attest : William Jackson, Secretary. 



UNITED STATES. 1? 



AMENDMENTS/ 

ARTICLE I. 

(85) Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- 
ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or 
abridging the freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right 
of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the gov- 
ernment for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE IL 

(86) A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security 
of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms 
shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

(87) No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any 
house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, 
but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

(88) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and 
seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but 
upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and 
particularly describing the place to be searched, and the per- 
son or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

(89) No person shall be held to answer for a capital or 
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indict- 
ment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or 

1 The first ten Ameiidnients went into effect Nov. 3, 1791. 



18 CONSTITUTION OF 

naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time 
of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for 
the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; 
nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law ; nor shall private property be 
taken for public use without just compensation. 

AETICLE VI. 

(90) In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy 
the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of 
the State and district wherein the crime shall have been com- 
mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained 
by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the 
accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; 
to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in hia 
favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. 

(91) In suits at common law, where the value in contro- 
versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury 
shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be other- 
wise re-examined in any court of the United States, than 
according to the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIIL 

(92) Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines 
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

(93) The enumeration in the Constitution of certain righta 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by 
the people. 



UNITED STATES. 19 



ARTICLE X. 

(94) The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved 
to the States respectively or to the people. 

ARTICLE XU 

(95) The judicial power of the United States shall not be 
construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced 
or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of 
another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 

ARTICLE XIV 

(96) The electors shall meet in their respective States and 
vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, 
at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted 
for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all 
persons voted for as President and of ail persons voted for as 
Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; which 
lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the 
seat of the government of the United States, directed to the 
President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, 
in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted. 
The person having the greatest number of votes for President 
shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have 
such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- 
bers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
President, the House of Representatives shall choose imme- 
diately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the Presi- 
dent the votes shall be taken by States, the representation 

1 111 eifect Jan. 8, 171)8. 2 in effect Sept. 25, 1804. 



20 CONSTITUTION OP 

from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose 
shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose 
a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. 

(97) The person having the greatest number of votes as 
Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be 
a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if 
no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers 
on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a 
quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole 
number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally in- 
eligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of 
Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII.i 

(98) Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have 
been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States or 
any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

(99) Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV.2 

(100) Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the 
United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are. citi- 
zens of the United States and of the State wherein they 
reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall 
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 

1 In effect Dec. 18, 1865. 2 lu effect July 28, 18(J8. 



UNITED STATES. 21 

or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any 
person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the 
laws. 

(101) Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned 
among the several States according to their respective num- 
bers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, 
excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at 
any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
the executive and judicial ofl&cers of a State, or the members 
of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabit- 
ants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens 
of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par- 
ticipation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representa- 
tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the 
number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number 
of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

(102) Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Repre- 
sentative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-Presi- 
dent, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United 
States or under any State, who, having previously taken an 
oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an ex- 
ecutive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Consti- 
tution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection 
or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the 
enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds 
of each house, remove such disability. 

(103) Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the 
United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for 
payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing 
insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither 
the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- 



22 CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. 

cipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and 
claims shall be held illegal and void. 

(104) Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, 
by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV.i 

(105) Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States 
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States 
or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condi- 
tion of servitude. 

(106) Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce 
this article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI.2 

(107) Section 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and 
collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without 
apportionment among the several States, and without regard 
to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII.3 

(108) Section 1. The Senate of the United States shall be 
composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people 
thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. The 
electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. 

Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation 
of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State 
shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided 
that the Legislature of any State may empower the executive 
thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill 
the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. 

Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to 
affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it be- 
comes valid as part of the Constitution. 

1 In effect Marcli 30, 1870. 2 jn effect Feb. 25. 1913. 

B 111 effect May 31, 1913. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



23 



TPIE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Parties to the Com- 
pact. 



Purposes. 



Thing Done. 



I. PREAMBLE. 

" We the people of the 
United States." 

1. To form a more perfect union. 

2. To establish justice. 

3. To insure domestic tranquillity. 

4. To provide for the common defence. 

5. To promote the general welfare. 

6. To secure the blessings of liberty : 

a. For themselves. 

b. For posterity. 

"Do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America.' ' 



QUERIES. 

1. "What form of government preceded that under the Constitution ? 

2. Why was the change made ? 65. 

3. When and where made ? 66. (Bancroft.) 

4. By whom made — the States or the people ? 

5. What prominent men toot part in the meeting to form the Constitu- 

tion ? 

6. How long did the discussion last ? 

7. To whom was the Constitution reported ? 

8. By whom and how ratified ? 

9. Were the people unanimously for it ? 

10. What are the purposes of a government ? 

References. — Sheldon's Studies in American History, pp. 203, 207, 
211; Wilson's State and Federal Governments, pp. 21, 23, 1^4, 35; O. S. 
Leaflets, Nos. 3, 6, 19. 



n. PARTS OF OUR GOVERNMENT. 

1. The Law-Making Power. 1. 

2. The Law-Interpreting Power. 67. 

3. The Law-Executing Power. 55. 



24 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



THE LAW-MAKING POWER. 

III. CONGRESS. 

(p. 60, 65), f 1. House of Representatives. 2. 
composed of I 2. Senate. 2. 

QUERIES. 

1. Why have three departments to the government ? 

2. Does Russia have the same three parts ? 

3. What are these parts called in England ? 

4. Should public officers be paid ? Why ? 
6. Why have a national judiciary ? 41, 83. 

6. Why have a national legislature ? 

7. Which is the Upper House ? Why so called ? 

8. Which the Lower House ? 

9. What does each House represent ? 67. 

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 
1. Composed of citizens. 4. 

1. Age ? 

2. Citizen how long ? 
8. Citizen where ? 4. 
4. How disqualified ? 22. 

^ 5. Loyalty ? 102. 
rl. When? 3. 
J 2. By whom ? 3. 
j 3. Electors? 3. 
I 4. How? 15. 



2. Qualifications. 



3. Elected. 



4. Vacancies. 



6. Apportionment. 



6. Powers. 



V. 



How filled ? 17. 

1. Includes whom ? 5. 

2. When made ? 5. 

3. Upon what basis ? 101. 

4. Conditions? 100. 
f With Senate. 2. 
1 Exclusive. 3. 

2. Of impeachment. 7. 
9. 
2.93. 



' 1. Legislative. 



3. Electoral 



■il: 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



25 



SENATE. 



1. Composed of whom ? 8. 

( 1. Age ? 



2. Qualifications. 



3. Elected. 



4. Vacancy. 



5. Powers. 



6. Presided over 



by { 



10. 

2. A citizen, nine years. 

3. Inhabitant of ? 

4. Office-holder? 22. 

5. Chosen or appointed ? 

6. Loyal? 102. 
f 1. By whom ? 8. 

2. For how long ? 8. 

3. How? 9. 

4. When? 

5. Into what classes? 

1. How happen ? 9. 

2. How filled ? 

1. To vote. 19. 

2. Legislative. 2. 

3. Elective. /Officers. 12. 

t Vice-President. 

4. Of impeachment. 13. 
f Treaties. 
I Appointment. 63. 

Vice-President U.S. 11. 
President pro tern. 12. 



5. Executive. 



QUERIES. 

1. Why should a senator be older than a representative ? 

2. Why should Congressmen be citizens ? 

3. Why should senators hold office longer than representatives ? 71. 

4. Why have more than one House ? 68. 

5. What exclusive power given the House of Representatives ? Why ? 

6. What exclusive functions of the Senate ? Why ? 

7. On what basis is representation allowed ? 

8. What other basis could you suggest ? 

9. What change in the basis of apportionment ? Why ? Why is the 

term " slavery " not mentioned in the Constitution ? 
10. Who is responsible for legislation ? 64, 131. 

References. — State and Federal Governments, pp. 98, 100, 102, 31 ; 
Sheldon's History, pp. 204, 206. 



26 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



THE EXECUTIVE. 



I. THE PRESIDENT. 



1. Supreme Executive. 

2. Term. 



55. 



3, Election. ^ 



By 
Electors. 



3y House 

of 
Represent- 
atives. 



1. How appointed ? 56. 

2. How many in each State ? 

1. Meet where? 96. 

2. How vote ? 

3. Make lists. 

3. Process. J 4. Sign lists. 

5. Certify lists. 

6. Transmit lists. 

7. Direct lists. 



Before 

Congress. 



1. Lists opened by ? 

2. In presence of ? 

3. Counted by ? 

4. Election. 

5. Non-election. 



rl. When? 

2. From whom ? 

3. By ballot. 

4. By States. 

5. Quorum. 

^ 6. Non-election. 



58. 



96. 



4 Qualifications. 



5. Salary. 60. 

6. Removable. 66. 



1. Citizenship. 

2. Age. 

3. Residence. 

4. Oath of office. 61. 



References. — Dawes' How we are Governed, pp. 167-8 ; Macy's 
Civil Government. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



27 



fi. 



7. Powers and 
Duties. 



Military. j 



1. Over army and navy. 62. 

2. Over militia, conditional. 



2. Civil. 



Executive departments. 62. 
Reprieves and pardons. 
Make treaties, conditional. 



r 1 

2, 
3 

4. Appoint 

5, 
6, 

7, 



63. 



(.3. 



Fill vacancies. 64. 

Send messages. 65. 

Convene Congress. 

Adjourn Congress. 

Receive ambassadors. 

Have laws executed. 

May veto laws. 24. 

Must grant commissions. 65. 



1. How elected. 



11. VICE-PRESIDENT. 

1. By Electors. 

2. By Congress. 

3. By Senate. 97. 



2. Qualifications. | ^- ^"S^^^^ *« Presidency. 97. 

1 2. Oath of office. 83. 

3. Term. 

4. Powers and Duties. P- President of Senate. 11. 

1 2. Acting President of the United States. 59. 



QUERIES. 

1. Why have but one President ? 77. (Bancroft.) ("Wilson, p. 113.) 

2. What does the President owe the people ? 32. 

3. Why not limit the Presidency to rich or highly educated meni' 47. 

4. Why limit the power of the President ? 

6. Why should he be a native of the United States ? 

6. Why not elected by direct vote? (Wilson, p. 114.) 

7. Who counts the electoral vote ? 

8. What important contest raised this question ? 

9. In case of non-election by votes of electors, why should the House 

rather than the Senate choose a President ? 
10. Why not elect a President for one year ? For six years ? For ten 
years ? 



28 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Composed of 
67. 



Judges. 



FUDCtioUB. 



THE JUDICIARY. 

Supreme Court. < 

Subordinate Courts, / ^" ^' 
I 2. D 



Chief Justice, 
Associate Justices. 



1. Circuit Courts, 
istrict Courts. 



Appointed by 



1. President 
and 

2, Senate. 63. 

Removable py^^^P^^^^^^"*- 
I For what ? 66, 

Tenure of ofiBce. 67. 

Compensation. /How fixed? 

I When changed f 

, Oath of office. 83. 

' Judicial power 
extends to what ? 68. 

Original 
Jurisdiction. 69. 



Appellate 
^ Jurisdiction, 



69. 



QUERIES. 

1. Why make the judges permanent office-holders ? 86. 

2. Why give them larger salaries than to Congressmen ? 

3. Why have a national judiciary ? 83. 

4. Why not allow all judges to hold office during life or good be- 

havior ? 85. 
6. Why heed the courts' decisions ? 

6. What are the chief purposes of judges ? 87. 

7. What is a jury ? 89. 

8. Difference in purpose of the judge and the jury ? 

9. What is meant by the " common law " ? By " statute law ** ? 
10. What is meant by ♦' equity '• ? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 29 



PROVISIONS COMMON TO SENATE AND HOUSE. 

1. Membership. f Composed of. 17. 

t. Decided by. 

2. Oath of office. 83. 

3. Quorum. f Composed of. 17. 

I How secured ? 
. (, , f How determined ? 21. 

■ ^^^' \ How paid ? 

5. Rules. 18. 

6. Journal. j^^^P*' ^^^ 

i Published. 

7. Yeas and Nays. 19. 

{r How long? 20. 
Adjournment. I ^^^^^^^ 
Holding civil office. 22. 
Certain emoluments, 
f Punishment. 18. 
I Expulsion. 



9. Penalties. 



QUERIES. 

1. Why should each house decide as to qualifications of its members ? 

2. "What is a " quorum " of the House ? Of the Senate ? 

8. "When is a quorum present ? (See discussion over Speaker Reed's 

decision.) 
4. Why should less than a quorum adjourn ? 
6. What powers ought less than a quorum to have ? Why ? 

6. Why keep a journal ? 

7. Why publish a journal ? 

8. What is the use of " Yeas and Nays " ? 

9. Wliy not let one house adjourn permanently without the other ? 
10. Why should each member vote ? 122, 65. 

References. — Any good book on Rules of Order ; Bancroft's Formac 
tion of Constitution ; Congressional Record. 



30 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



BILLS, LAWS, RESOLUTIONS, ETC. 

r 



Bills and Laws. 



Orders, etc. 



I. 

Courses. 

IL 
First Course. 



III. 
Second Course. 



IV. 

Third Course. 



1. Passed by Congress. 

2. Exception. 

3. Presented to President. 

4. Approved or disapproved. 

5. Treated as a bill. 



1. With executive approval. 

2. With executive veto. 

3. Without executive action. 

1. Bill passes Congress. 24* 

2. Sent to the President. 

3. President approves. 

(T 1. Bill passes Congress. 24. 

2. Sent to the President. 

3. President returns with objec- 

tions. 

4. Objections entered on journal. 

5. Bill reconsidered. 

G. Approved by two-thirds. 

7. Vote taken. 

8. Votes recorded. 

1. Bill passes Congi-ess. 24. 

2. Presented to President. 

3. Not returned in ten days. 

4. Effect, Congress not adjourn- 

ing. 

25. 



QUERIES. 

1. What are the parts of a bill ? 

2. Write a bill forbidding the smoking of cigarettes. 

3. Offer an amendment to this bill. 

4. What difference between a bill and a law ? 
6. What steps in the passage of a bill ? 

6. In what ways may a bill be defeated ? 

7. How does the President approve a bill ? 

8. How express his disapproval ? 78. 

9. Write, as President, your approval of the bill mentioned in (2), 
10. Veto the bill in (2). 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 31 

POWERS AND DUTIES OF CONGRESS. 

L AS TO REVENUES. 

{1. Taxes, duties, imposts, excises. 26. 
2. Borrowed money. 27. 
3. Sale of lands. 78, 
4. Sale of other property. 

{1. To pay debts of the United States. 26. 
2. To provide for common defence. 
3. To promote public welfare. 

QUERIES. 

1. Why should people pay taxes ? 94, 101. 

2. What difference between a direct and an indirect tax ? Give exam- 

pies. 

3. What part of the time of Congress is taken up in raising and spend- 

ing money ? 143. 

4. In what ways can Congress borrow money ? 147. 

5. Where and how does the government get its title to lands ? 

6. What is a tariff ? Where collected ? 99. 

7. Why not raise all taxes on real estate or land ? On personal prop- 

erty ? On large incomes ? 

8. What is a poll tax ? A license tax ? Internal revenue ? 

9. For what ought the public money to be expended ? 145. 

10. What principles should govern a legislative body in raising taxes ? 

11. Should the government lend money to its citizens ? 208, 212. 

II. AS TO TRADE. 

Domestic. 28. 
1 Kinds of Traffic. < 2. Foreign. 






With Indians. 



2. Means of Traffic. 



' 1. Coining money. 30. 

2. Regulating value of money. 

3. Fixing standard weights, etc. 30. 

4. Regulating bankruptcies. 29. 
^ 5. Establishing post-offices. 32. 

8. Hindrances re- f ^' Punishing counterfeiting. 31. 

moved by | ^- P^^nishing piracy and felony. 35. 

L 3. Protecting inventors, etc. 33. 



32 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



QUERIES. 

1. What is the purpose of trade ? Who is benefited ? 237. 

2. Is all profitable trade justifiable ? Illustrate. 

5. What usually controls the price of an article ? 252. 

4. Do not tariffs and other taxes raise the prices ? Why allow this ? 

6. Whj- limit the coining and valuation of money to the general govern- 

ment alone ? Can you coin paper money ? 
6. Why protect inventors ? 303. 

III. AS TO WAR. 

1. Congress may declare, 

2. May gi-ant letters of marque and reprisal. 

3. May regulate captures. 

4. May raise and support armies. Limitation. 
6. May provide and maintain a navy. 

6. May establish rules for army and navy. 

(1. To execute the laws. 
2. To suppress insurrections. 
3. To repel invasions. 

{1. Organization. 
2. Equipment. 
3. Discipline. 
4. Government. 

QUERIES. 

1. Why do wars occur ? 257, 262, 297, 309. 

2. How best prevented ? 

3. What are marque and reprisal ? 

4. What is it to declare war ? 

5. Why by Congress ? 

6. Who are the militia ? 

7. Why have militia ? 

8. What trouble did President Lincoln meet about the militia ? 

9. Why not keep a large standing army ? 

10. Should all able-bodied male citizens receive military training ? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



33 



IV. AS TO COURTS AND PENALTIES. 



1. Courts. 



2. Penalties for 



\i 



1. Congress may constitute inferior tribunals. 34. 

2. May define and punish international offences. 35. 
May fix place of certain trials. 70. 
May restrict jurisdiction. 69. 

1. Crimes on the seas. 35. 

2. Offences against laws of nations. 

3. Counterfeiting. 31. 

4. Treason, with limitations. 72. 

5. Violations of laws of special territory. 70. 



QUERIES. 

"What is the chief court of the United States ? 

Which are three of the subordinate courts ? 

What are international offences ? 

Why should Congress fix a place of trial ? 

Why have other than State courts ? 

Why have other than the supreme national court ? 

How many circuit courts ? How constituted ? Territory ? 

Is it better to punish wrong-doing or to prevent it ? 

How can courts become instruments of wrong ? 89. 

What is treason ? How defined fully ? 

What is the purpose of punishment ? 264. 

What is an indeterminate sentence ? Is it wise ? 

How can schools make a smaller number of courts necessary ? 

What are international rights ? 303. 



As to States. 



As to Territory 

and 

Property. 



V. AS TO STATES AND SPECIAL TERRITORY. 

1. Congress may regulate election of its own mem- 
bers. 15. 

2. It may determine certain things as to electors. 
57. 

3. State imposts may be restricted. 53. 

4. Proof of State records prescribed. 73. 

5. Effect of proofs fixed how ? 
r 1. Exclusive legislation for seat of government. 42^ 
! 2. Authority over purchased territory. 
I 3. May admit new States conditionally. 77. 
V. 4. May dispose of territory, etc. 



34 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



QUERIES. 

1. Why should not Congress regulate all elections ? 

2. Who are electors ? 

3. What difference between a discretionary power and a mandatory 

one ? 

4. Can a state prevent the election of Congressmen ? 

6. What is a state impost ? Of what value ? 
G. Why state what constitutes proof ? 

7. What is "eminent domain"? Upon what principle does it rest? 

196. What rights imply ? 

8. How does any man acquire property in land ? Upon what do all 

deeds rest ? Why ? 197. 

9. Why should Congress control the seat of government ? 

10. Who makes laws for all territory not part of a State ? Why ? 

MISCEI.LANEOUS POWERS, Etc. 

(How often ? 16. 
When ? 
How changed ? 
2. Naturalization. Must be uniform. 29. 

(Purpose. 33. 
Secure what ? 
For whose benefit ? 

4. Making of general laws. 43. 

5. The slave trade. /Recognized. 44. 

I Abolished. 98. 

6. Legislation as to executive vacancy. 59. 

|-1. 61. 

7. Inferior appointments. -| 2. 

13. 

1. Original. 80. 

8. Propose constitutional amendments. -| 2. By convention. 



I 



Limitation. 



QUERIES. 



1. Why must Congress meet yearly ? How long can it remain in ses- 

sion ? Where must it meet ? 

2. Can one bouse prevent the assembling of Congress ? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



35 



3. What is the purpose of naturalization ? Should immigration be re- 

stricted ? 313. 

4. What is a patent ? A copyright ? How secured ? What is an inter- 

national copyright ? Do you favor these ? 182. 

5. Was the slave trade ever directly legalized by the Constitution ? Why 

abolish it ? Its history. 

6. Why not limit law-making power to particular subjects or objects ? 

7. Can Congress alter or amend the Constitution ? Why provide for 

amendments ? 

8. Is there any part of the Constitution which cannot be amended ? 

9. What is the constitutional definition of an inferior officer? What 

danger in controlling his appointment? 109, 110, 
10. What is the civil service law ? Its purpose ? Its value ? 108. 

OFFICE-HOLDERS. 



Restrictions. 



Term of Office. • 



Salaries. 



Impeachment. 



Upon Congressmen. 22. 

Upon office-holders. 

As to presidential electors. 56. 

As to disloyal persons. 102. 

As to favors from foreign powers. 51. 

1. Of senators. 8. 

2. Of representatives. 3. 

3. Of the President. 55. 

4. Of the Supreme Court. 67. 

5. Of the Cabinet. 

1. Amount. 21. 

2. From what paid ? 

■ 1. Extent of judgment in. 66. 

2. Any further liability, 

3. Who are liable to ? 

4. On what ground ? 70. 



QUERIES. 

1. Why require public officers to be loyal ? 138. 

2. Why not allow a Congressman to hold another office ? Why restrict 

presidential electors ? 159. 
8. Who are office-seekers? Is it wrong to seek office? 110. 
4. Who are politicians ? What are " rings " ? Caucuses ? 



36 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



5. Why not let every ofifice-holder remain during life or good behavior ? 

Ill, 162. 

6. How did the term "rotation in office" arise? 113. What is meant 

by the expression, " To the victors belong the spoils " ? "WTiat idea 
anderlies this ? 

7. How large should salaries be ? What obligations do salaries imply ? 

8. Why provide for impeachment ? On what grounds ? 

9. Why limit the punishment ? 



THE UNITED STATES ARE FORBIDDEN 

1. To restrict slave trade. 1 1- Limitations. 44. 

12. When abolished ? 98. 

2. To suspend habeas corpus — (Exceptions?) 45. 

il. Bill of attainder. 46. 
2. Attainder of treason. 72. 
3. Ex post facto \a.yf. 46. 

4. To lay direct tax (unless ?) 47. 

_ _ , , ,. f 1. On domestic exports. 48. 

5. To levy duties < ^ ^ . 

(. 2. On interstate commerce. 49. 

6. To give preference in trading to any State. 

f 1. For armies beyond two years. 37. 

2. Without appropriation. 50. 

3. Without published statements. 
I 4. For rebellion, etc. 

(1. Territorial claims. 81. 
2. Contracts. 
3. Public debt. 103. 

9. To grant title of nobility. 51. 



7. To pay public money 



10. To prohibit freedom. 



Religious. 



Civil. 



Tests. 83. 
Kind. 85. 
Exercise. 
Speech. 85. 
Press. 85. 
Public assembly. 
Petition. 
V Bearing arms. 86. 



QUERIES. 

1, What Is the *' habeas carpus'"? Why so important? Why sus- 
pended ? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 37 

2. Define a writ. An attorney. A court. Bail. 90, 91. 

3. Give the correct basis and principle of taxation. 94, 98, 101. 

4. What are duties ? For what purposes levied ? Why restricted ? 153i 

5. What principles should govern in expending public money ? 

6. Should it be spent for internal improvements ? Without limit ? 

7. Why limit war appropriations to two years ? 

8. What is repudiation ? Why forbidden ? Is repudiation not recog- 

nized as right in bankrupt laws ? 

9. What objection to titles of nobility ? Principle ? 

10. Reasons for civil and religious freedom ? Are freedom and license 
identical ? 

THE STATES ARE FORBIDDEN 

f 1. To make alliances, etc. 52. 
1. In interstate relations. ■{ 2. To lay duties, except ? 53. 

V 3. To enter compacts, unless ? 54. 
r I. To coin money. 52. 

2. To emit bills of credit. 

3. To make legal tender, unless ? 

4. To impair contracts. 52. 



2. In commercial matters. 



To grant title of nobility. 
In penalties. 



f 1. To pass bill of attainder. 52. 
I 2. To pass ex post facto law. 

{1. To engage, unless? 54. 
2. To keep troops, etc. 
3. To make reprisals, etc. 52. 
6. To permit slavery. 98. 

QUERIES. 

1. What is the supreme law of the land ? Why ? 

2. Do all officers swear or affirm to support the Constitution of the United 

States ? Any other ? 

3. Why restrict the States as to treaties ? What was ^sop's fable as to 

the bundle of sticks ? 61. 

4. Can you tell anything about " wild-cat" banks ? 

5. Origin of money ? Of coin ? Of paper currency ? 199. 

6. Can the government cheat in making money ? Are greenbacks 

money ? Or bonds ? 200, 202. 

7. What is a contract ? Why forbid a State to impair it ? 

8. What is an ex post facto law ? Illustrate. Why objectionable ? 

9. Does not the State militia form part of State troops ? 

10. Are laws made for the rulers only ? For the rich only ? For the 
poor only ? 298, 299, 134, 47. 



38 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



THE STATES ARE SUBORDINATE 

{1. Of State legislators. 83. 
2. Of State executives. 
3. Of State judicial ofiBcers. 

r 1. To United States Constitution. 82. 
2. In supreme authority. J 2- To United States laws. 

I 3. To United States treaties. 



4. To United States judiciary. 82. 

To constitutional amendme 
To Constitution itself. 84. 



3. In State obligations. / 1- To constitutional amendments. 80. 
\ 2. T 



QUERIES. 

1. What difference between the Confederation of 1776 and the Republic 

of 1787 ? 

2. What difference between an oath and an affirmation ? ^Yho are per- 

mitted to affirm ? 

3. What is perjury ? Does a man commit perjury in court if he tells only 

part of the truth ? 

4. Do laws make men good ? Can you establish morality or temperance 

by law ? 281, 291. 

5. What is interstate commerce ? Why not left to the States ? 

6. What was the "original-package" discussion? 

RIGHTS OF THE STATES 

1. To representation. | ^- I" ^^^ ^o^^^- ^^^''' ^■ 

(.2. In the Senate. Basis. 8, 9. 

1^1. Time. 15. 

2. In elections, -l 2. Place. 

1 3. Manner. 

8. With militia. ( 1- '^^ ^PP'^'^' «®°^^^- *!• 

t. 2. To train by United States Manual. 

4. In interstate relations. 73. 

1. Immunities and privileges. 74. 

6. As to citizenship. -{ 2. Of States and the United States. 100. 

3. Equal protection. 100. 



lip. L 

(; 

6. Making new States. { ^- ^^ dismemberment. 77. 
1 2. By junction. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



39 



7. As to fugitives. P- Not protected 
1 2. Not delivered 

13 



75. 
76. 



8. A guarantee. 



9. Reservation. 



il 



Of republican form. 79. 
Of protection from invasion. 
Against insurrection, etc. 79. 
Of riglits not enumerated. 93. 
Of rights not delegated. 94. 



QUERIES. 

1. On what principle is representation based? Are vFomen represented 

in governing bodies ? Why ? 

2. Why should the States have control over certain things in the election 

of national officers ? In the militia ? 

3. Does the United States Constitution define and fix citizenship ? Why ? 

4. Why limit Congress in making new States ? 

5. What moral principle involved ? 

6. What is meant by a " republican form of government " ? 

7. On what principle is national protection based ? 

8. What is reserved to the States ? Why ? 

9. Can an amendment be adopted contrary to the wish of any State ? 

On what ground ? 18, 12. 

RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS. 



1. Of senators and representatives. 

2. As to treason. < 

12 

3. As to his house. < ' ^ 

1 2. In 



il: 



4. Security. 



li 



6. In criminal prosecutions 



As to arrest. 21. 
2. As to freedom of speech. 
Shall consist of ? 71. 
Conviction only by ? 71. 
In peace. 87. 

war. 
In what ? 88. 
Against what ? 
Illegal warrants. 

1. Kind of trial. 90, 91. 

2. When tried ? 

3. Where tried? 

4. Accusation. 89. 

5. Witnesses must confront. 
0. May have counsel. 

7. Reasonable bail. 92 

8. No excessive fines. 

9. No cruel or unusual punishments. 



40 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



6. In civil actions. 



7. In the courts. 



il 



1. Jury trial, when ? 
Second trial. 

89. 



89. 



1. Privileges. 

2. Indictment. 

3. Twice for same offence. 

4. Self -accusation. 89. 

5. Due legal process. 100. 

6. Compensation for property taken. 

7. Equal protection. 



QUERIES. 

1. What is an individual ? Natural right ? Legal right? 

2. What distinction between freedom and license ? 

3. Were the Anarchists of Chicago arrested for free speech ? 

4. What is meant by " A man's home is his castle " ? 

5. What is a warrant ? Why must it be specific, not general ? 

6. What idea underlies trial by jury ? What is a grand jury ? A petit 

jury? 

7. Why have witnesses face the accused ? 

8. What is counsel ? Is it provided by the State ? 

9. What is an indictment ? Does it prove guilt ? 

10. What is the first object of government ? 

11. Is the public school a protection to the. State ? How ? 

12. How can the principles underlying these provisions of the Constitution 

be taught in the school ? 



GLOSSARY 

OF IMPORTANT TERMS AS USED IN CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 



Acquittal. A discharge from accusation by judicial action. 

Act. A law passed by a legislative body. 

Adjournment. Act of suspending or postponing a meeting. 

Administration. Management of public affairs ; government of the 

country. 
Admiralty. The name of a jurisdiction which takes charge of cases which 

arise out of maritime affairs and of crimes committed on the high 

seas. 
Affirmation. A solemn declaration that one will tell the truth, made by 

one conscientiously opposed to taking a judicial oath. 
Alien. A resident foreigner not naturalized. 
Alliance. A union of nations or states for any common purpose. 
Ambassador. A diplomatic officer of the highest rank commissioned to 

represent his government in a foreign country. 
Amendment. An alteration in the constitution by change or addition. 
Appellate Jurisdiction. Jurisdiction in cases of appeal. 
Attainder, Bill of. A bill attainting persons of certain crimes by which 

their civil rights are forfeited. 
Ballot. A piece of paper or other thing used in voting. 
Bankrupt. One whom the law has formally declared as unable to pay 

his debts. 
Bill of Rights. A summary of the rights and privileges claimed by the 

people. 
Cabinet. The constitutional advisers of the President. 
Capital Crime. A crime punishable with death. 
Capitation Tax. A tax levied on individuals, as a poll tax. 
Census. An official enumeration of the inhabitants of a country. 
Citizen. An inhabitant of a country who enjoys the rights of a free man. 
Colony. A foreign settlement under the jurisdiction of the mother country. 
Commission. A document issued by a government conferring rank, 

power, or authority, on the person or persons therein named. 
41 



42 GLOSSARY 

Common Law. The unwritten law of England, the basis of judicial pro- 
ceedings of all English-speaking peoples. 
Compromise. An agreement between contending parties in which con- 
cessions are made by each side. 
Concurrence. Agreement ; approval. 
Confederacy or Federation. A union between states for a common 

object. 
Consul. An othcer commissioned in foreign countries. His chief duty 

is to protect the commerce of his own country. 
Contract. A lawful agreement between two or more parties. 
Conviction. A judgment that the person accused is guilty. 
Court. One or more persons sitting in a judicial capacity for the trial of 

causes. 
Crime. An offence against the laws of the land and to which a penalty 

is attached. 
Duty. Any sum of money required by the governmenl to be paid on 

goods. 
Elector. One who has the right to vote ; also one chosen '.o cast the vote 

of his constituency for the President and Vice-Piesident of the 

United States. 
Eligible. Qualified for office. \ 

Emancipation. Liberation from bondage or slavery. 
Emolument. Remuneration of any kind connected with any office or 

occupation. 
Equity. The correction of the law where it is defective in particular 

cases ; redress of a wrong. 
Excise. Duty on home commodities. 
Executive. Having the powers of executing or carrying into effect ; an 

official personage or body charged with the administration of 

government. 
Felony. A crime punishable with imprisonment or death. 
Forfeiture. Losing one's possessions as a penalty for crime. 
Habeas Corpus. (Literally, " You may have the body.") A writ having 

for its object to bring a party before a judge or court to inquire 

into the cause of his imprisonment. 
High Seas. The ocean beyond the limit of three miles from the shore. 
Immunity. Freedom from duty or penalty granted by law. 
Impeachment. An arraignment of a public officer under a written formal 

accusation of crime or misdemeanor for which he should be removed 

from office. 
Impostc. Taxes or duties, especially on imports. 
Involuntary Servitude. Service under compulsion- 



GLOSSARY 43 

Journal. A record of proceedings. 

Judgment. A decision reached by a court. 

Judicial. Pertaining to a court or judge ; law-interpreting. 

Jurisdiction. The limit within which power may be exercised. 

Jury. A number of men (generally twelve) to decide the issue in any 

case at law. 
Law of Nations. The common law of nations regulating their intercourse 

in peace and their relations in war. 
Legislative. Having the power to make or enact laws. 
Letters :^f Marque and Reprisal. A license or extraordinary commission 

granted by a government to its subjects to take the property of a 

foreign state or of its citizens or subjects for injuries supposed to 

have been received. 
Majority. More than half. 
Militia. A body of soldiers enrolled in the state to be called on in 

emergencies. 
Minister. A representative at a foreign court ; an ambassador. 
Misdemeanor. A crime less than a felony. 

Naturalization. The process by which an alien becomes a citizen. 
Oath. A solemn declaration with an appeal to God for its truth. 
Order. A direction, command, or regulation, made by authority. 
Original Jurisdiction. Authority to try a cause for the first time. 
Pardon. Release of an offender without further punishment. 
Party. IMaintiff or defendant in a law suit. 
Piracy. Robbery on the high sea. 
Plenipotentiary. An ambassador invested with full powers to negotiate 

for his government. 
Plurality. The greatest of two or more numbers, whether it be a majority 

or not. 
Pro Tempore. For the time. 
Quorum. A sufficient number to transact business ; unless otherwise 

ordered, a majority. 
Ratification. The act of confirming. 
Rebellion. Open resistance to lawful authority. 
Reprieve. Temporary suspension of a sentence. 
Resolution. Something determined upon by the vote of an assembly, 

distinguished from a bill. 
Revenue. The total income of a government. 
Revolution, A complete change of government due to a revolt. 
Secession. Act of withdrawing or separating. 

Securities. Written or printed promises for payment of money, e.g. 
bonds. 



44 GLOSSARY 

Session. The time between the first meeting of an assembly and its final 
adjournment. 

Speaker. The presiding officer of the House of Representatives. 

State Sovereignty. The right claimed by some states of acting indepen- 
dently of the general government. 

Suffrage. A vote ; the right of voting. 

Suit. A judicial action for recovery of a right or redress of a vyrong. 

Tariff. A table of duties on merchandise payable to the government. 

Tax. An impost ; a duty ; a charge laid by the government on the in- 
come or property of individuals for the support of the government. 

Territory. A tract of land, under a temporary government, belonging to 
the United States. 

Treason. See " Constititution of United States," Art. 3, Sec. 3. 

Treaty. A compact, between two or more nations or sovereigns, drawn 
in legal form. 

Tribunal. A court of justice ; any judicial body. 

Valid. Sufficient and effective in law. 

Veto. (I forbid.) The refusal of the executive to sign a bill passed by 
Congress or the Legislature. 

Warrant. A judicial order authorizing arrests, searches, or seizures. 

Writ. A written order issued by a court or magistrate. 

Yeas and Nays. A vote by roll call in which each member answers yea 
or nay as his name is called. 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE LEGISLATIVE AND 
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS OF THE GOVERN- 
MENTS OF THE UNITED STATES AND GREAT 
BRITAIN 1 



UNITED STATES 

I. Constitution. 

Adoption : 

Present Constitution adopt- 
ed September 17, 1787. 

Amendments : 

Congress may, by two- 
thirds vote of both Houses, 
propose amendments to the 
Constitution, or upon appli- 
cation of the Legislatures of 
two-thirds of the several 
States, shall call a conven- 
tion for proposing amend- 
ments, which, in either case, 
must be ratified by the Leg- 
islatures of three-fourths of 
the several States, or by 
conventions in three-fourths 
thereof. 

.Form of Government : 
Republic. 

II. Chief Magistrate. 
President of the United 

States. 



GREAT BRITAIN 

I. Constitution. 

There is no written Con- 
stitution except ordinary law 
and precedent. Five docu- 
ments lie at the foundation 
of what is called the Un- 
written Constitution. They 
are : 

1. Magna Charta, by King 
John, 1215; 

2. Petition of Rights, temp. 
Charles I, 1628 ; 

3. Habeas Corpus Act, temp. 
Charles II, 1679 ' • 

4. Bill of Rights, temp. Wil- 
liam and Mary, 1689 ; 

5. Act of Settlement, temp. 
William III, 1701. 

Form of Government : 

Monarchy in form, but Re- 
public in practice. 

II. Sovereign. 

King (or Queen) of Great 
Britain and Ireland, and 
Emperor (or Empress) of 
India. 



1 Copyright, 1891, by John Wenzel. 



11 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



UNITED STATES 
Term of Office : 

Elected for four years by 
the Electoral College, and is 
re-eligible. 

The Electoral College consists of 
Electo/s appointed by each State 
equal to the whole number of Sena- 
tors and Representatives to which 
each State may be entitled in 
Congress. Their only duties are the 
election of the President and Vice- 
President of the United States. 

Qualifications : 

Must be a natural born citi- 
zen, fourteen years a resident 
of the United States, and at 
least thirty-five years of age. 



Succession : 

In case of his death, resig- 
nation, or inability, the Vice- 
President takes his place. 

The newly chosen President of 
the Senate has the title of Vice- 
President. In case of the inability 
of both President and Vice-Presi- 
dent, the Secretary of State, and 
after him, in the order of the 
creation of their offices, the other 
members of the Cabinet, act as 
President until the disability of the 
President is removed, or a new 
President shall be elected. 

Responsibility : 

May be impeached by the 
House of Representatives, 



GREAT BRITAIN 
Te7-7n of Office : 

Holds office for life, by 
hereditary title, subject to the 
conditions of the Act of Settle- 
ment. 



Qualifications : 

Must be a descendant of 
Princess Sophia of Hanover, 
must be a Protestant member 
of the Church of England, 
and married only to a Prot- 
estant. 

Succession : 

Hereditary, following the 
law of primogeniture. 



Responsibility : 

Cannot be removed. The 
Ministers are personally re- 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



Ul 



UNITED STATES 

and tried by the Senate for 
treason, bribery, or other 
high crimes and misde- 
meanors. 

Powers and Duties : 

Commander-in-chief of the 
army and navy, and of the 
miHtia in the service of the 
Union. 

May convene Congress on 
extraordinary occasions. 



Must inform Congress of 
the state of the Union, 
and may recommend meas- 
ures to Congress : this is 
known as the President's 
Message. 

Bills passed by Congress 
must receive the President's 
signature in order to become 
laws ; but bills not returned 
by him unsigned to Congress 
within ten days become laws 
without his signature. 

Has power to veto any bill 
or resolution passed by Con- 
gress, but subject to the 
power of Congress to pass 
the same after reconsider- 
ation by a two-thirds majority 
in each House. 

Appoints and commissions 
aii Federal officers with the 



GREAT BRITAIN 

sponsible for the misconduct 
of the Sovereign. 



Powers and Duties : 

Has command of the army 
and navy. 



Parliament cannot be as- 
sembled, prorogued, or dis- 
solved except by the express 
command of the Sovereign. 

At the commencement of a 
new Parliament must deliver, 
either in person or by a com- 
mission authorized for that 
purpose, a speech declaring 
the cause of the summons. 

Bills passed by Parliament 
must receive the assent of the 
Sovereign in order to become 
law. 



Has legally a veto power; 
but, because the influence of 
the Executive over legislation 
has passed into the hands of 
the Ministers, the veto of the 
Crown has been disused since 
1707. 

Has powei to appoint all 
officers in the army and navy, 



IV 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



UNITED STATES 
advice and consent of 
Senate. 



the 



May make treaties with the 
advice and consent of the 
Senate. 

Has power to grant re- 
prieves or pardons for offend- 
ers against the United States, 
except in case of impeach- 
ment. 

III. Cabinet. 

Number of Members : 

Nine. 
Appointment : 

Chosen by the President, 
but must be approved by the 
Senate. 



Relations to Congress : 

Do not have seats in Con- 
gress. 

Tenure of Office: 

May be removed by the 
President. 



GREAT BRITAIN 

judges, ambassadors, colonial 
governors, bishops and arch- 
bishops of the Established 
Church, and grants all de- 
grees of nobility. 

May make treaties of any 
kind. 

May grant pardon to any 
particular offender. 



III. Cabinet. 

Number of Meinbers : 

From ten to eighteen. 

Appointmeiit : 

Nominated from both 
Houses by the leader of the 
dominant party in majority 
in Parliament and appointed 
and commissioned by the 
Sovereign. The leader be- 
comes the Prime Minister. 

Relations to Parliainent : 

Are the leaders of Parlia- 
ment, shaping and directing 
the business of the Houses. 

Tefiure of Office : 

Dependent upon the favor 
of the House of Commons ; 
for if not sustained they must 
all resign. 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



UNITED STATES 

Responsibility : 

Responsible to the Presi- 
dent. 

Powers and Duties : 

Meets in consultation with 
the President concerning 
matters of policy and admin- 
istration. Each Minister is 
at the head of an executive 
department. 



Members of the Cabinet: 

1. Secretary of State. 

2. Secretary of the Treasury. 

3. Secretary of War. 

4. Attorney-General. 

5. Postmaster-General. 

6. Secretary of the Navy. 

7. Secretary of the Interior. 

8. Secretary of Agriculture. 

9. Secretary of Commerce and La- 
bor. 



GREAT BRITAIN 

Responsibility : 

Responsible to the House 
of Commons. 

Powers and Duties : 

All real authority is with 
the Cabinet. The executive 
government is nominally in 
the Crown, but practically in 
the Cabinet. The Ministers 
are at the heads of the 
administrative departments. 
The Sovereign does not sit 
with the Cabinet. 

Members of the Cabinet : 

1. Prime Minister, and First Lord 
of the Treasury. 

2. Lord High Chancellor. 

3. Lord President of the Council. 

4. Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

5. Secretary of State for the Home 
Department. 

6. Secretary of State for War. 

7. Secretary of State for Foreign 
Affairs. 

8. Secretary of State for Colonies. 

9. Secretary of State for India. 

10. First Lord of the Admiralty. 

11. Lord Chancellor of Ireland. 

12. Chief Secretary to the Lord 
Lieutenant of Ireland. 

13. Chancellor of the Duchy of 
Lancaster. 

14. President of the Board of Trade. 

15. Lord Privy Seal. 

16. President of the Local Govern- 
ment Board. 

17. President of the Board of Agri- 
culture. 



VI 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



UNITED STATES 
IV, Congress. 

I. Senate. 
Composition : 

Composed of two Senators 
from each State (90 in 1906), 
chosen by the State Legisla- 
tures for six years, one-third 
retiring every two years. 



Qualifications : 

Must be at least thirty 
years of age, must have been 
a citizen of the United States 
for nine years, and must be 
an inhabitant of the State 
which he represents. 

Remuneration : 

$5000, with mileage. 
Organization : 

The Vice-President of the 
United States is the President 
of the Senate. Is elected by 
the Electoral College. Votes 
only in case of a tie. 

Committees : 

Members are divided into 
standing committees, chosen 
by the Senate itself, which 



GREAT BRITAIN 
IV. Parliament. 

I. House of Lords. 
Composition : 

Composed of about 590 
peers, who hold their seats : 
a. By virtue of hereditary 

tide ; 
^. By creation of the Sov- 
ereign ; 

c. By virtue of office (English 
bishops ) ; 

d. By election for life ( Irish 
peers ) ; 

e. By election for duration of 
Parliament (Scottish peers). 

Qualifications : 

Must be at least twenty-one 
years of age. 



Remuneration : 

Receive no pay. 
Organization : 

The Lord Chancellor, who 
is a member of the Cabinet, 
presides. 



Committees : 

Special committees are ap- 
pointed to make investiga- 
tions, and report on matters 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



Vll 



UNITED STATES 
act in the preliminary exami- 
nation, and shaping of meas- 
ures to be voted on. 
Quorum : 

A majority of members. 

Powers and Duties : 

In concurrence with the 
House of Representatives, it 
makes the laws. It also has 
power to confirm or reject 
all appointments to office by 
the President of the United 
States, and all treaties. The 
members constitute a high 
court for the trial of impeach- 
ments. 

2. House of Representa- 
tives. 
Composition : 

Composed (in 1906) of 
390 members elected every 
second year for two years by 
the people of the States in 
the proportion of one Repre- 
sentative for every 194,182 
inhabitants. Each State, 
however, is entitled to at 
least one member, whatever 
its population. 
QuaUficatio7is : 

Must be at least twenty- 
five years of age, must have 
been seven years a citizen of 



GREAT BRITAIN 
which could not be under- 
taken by the whole House. 

Quorum : 

Three, including the Lord 
Chancellor. 

Powers and Duties : 

In concurrence with the 
House of Commons, makes 
the laws, having a revising 
power over all bills proposed 
by the House of Commons, 
except those relating to pub- 
lic revenue and expenditure 
which it must pass or reject 
without amendment. It is 
also the supreme court of 
appeal. 
2. House of Commons. 

Composition : 

Composed (in 1905) of 670 
members, elected by secret 
ballot for a term of seven 
years. 

As a matter of fact, Parliament 
has always been dissolved before the 
expiration of seven years, thus ne- 
cessitating a new election. 



QuaUficatiojis : 

Must be at least twenty- 
one years of age. Clergy- 
men are disqualified from 



Vlll 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



UNITED STATES 
the United States, and must 
be an inhabitant of the State 
from which he is chosen. 



Remuneration : 

$5000 and mileage. 
Organization : 

Elects its own presiding 
officer, who is called the 
Speaker. 
Committees : 

Almost all the acts of the 
House are under the control 
of Standing Committees, ap- 
pointed by the Speaker. 



Quorum : 

A majority of members. 

Powers and Duties : 

May originate and, in con- 
currence with the Senate, 
pass resolutions and bills. 
Bills relating to the raising 
of revenue must be originated 
by the House, but may be 
amended by the Senate. Has 
sole power of impeachment. 



GREAT BRITAIN 

sitting as members, also Eng- 
lish and Scottish peers, gov- 
ernment contractors, and 
sheriffs and returning officers 
for the localities for which 
they act. 

Remune7-ation : 

Receive no pay. 

Organization : 

Elects its own presiding 
officer, who is called the 
Speaker. 

Committees : 

The business of the House 
is almost entirely under the 
direction of the Ministry; 
however, commissions and 
select committees are from 
time to time appointed to 
make investigations and re- 
port on matters which could 
not be undertaken by the 
House. 

Quorum : 

Forty members, including 
the Speaker. 

Potcers and Duties : 

May originate and, in con- 
currence with the House of 
Lords, pass resolutions and 
bills ; but bills relating to the 
imposition of taxes and the 
granting of supplies for the 
service of the State must be 
originated in the House of 
Commons. 



INDEX 



(References are to pages.) 



Abolition Society (1832), 86, 120. 
Acquisitions of territory, 

Louisiana Purchase (1803), 131, 132. 

Florida Purchase (1819), 132. 

Oregon boundary determined, 132. 

Results of, 132. 

Texas-Mexican Cession (Gadsden Pur- 
chase — 1853), 132, 133. 

Alaska Purchase (1S67), 133. 

Hawaii Annexation (1899), 133. 

Spanish Cessions (1899), 133. 
Adams, John, 36, 57, 65, 117. 
Adams, Samuel, 32, 34. 
Aerial Navigation, 155. 
Agriculture, 149, 150. 
Alaska Purchase, 133. 

Albany Colonial Convention (1754), 28, 43. 
Alien and Sedition Laws, 117, 118. 
Amendments. (See Constitution.) 
".\merican System." (.See Tariff.) 
Anti-Federalists, 54, 116. 
Anti-Nebraska Men, 121. 
Anti-Slavery Society, 86, 120. 
Army, Growth of United States, 15. 
Arnold, Benedict, 35. 
Articles of Confederation, 

Origin, 46. 

Principal features and defects, 47. 

Functions performed, 47. 
Astor, John Jacob, 70. 

Balboa, Nunez de, 5. 

Baltimore, Lord, 19. 

Bancroft, George, 186. 

Bank.^. Establishment of, 104, 105, 106. 

Bell, .\lexander G., 157. 

Bill of Rights, 62. 

Bimetallism, 102, 103. 

Bland Act (1878), 103. 

Boone, Daniel, 138. 

Boston Massacre, 33. 

Boston Tea Party, 32. 

Breckinridge, John C, 122. 

Brown's Raid, John (18.59), 88. 

Brvan, William J., 124, 125. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 182. 

Buchanan, President, 86, 122. 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, 7, 8, 10. 
California admitted (1850), 139. 
Canada, 

Ceded to Great Britain, 29. 

During Revolution, 35. 



Canals, 153, 154. 

Cape of Good Hope, Discovery of, 4. 

Carolinas, the, 20, 21. 

Carroll, Charles, 152. 

Cartier, 10, 12. 

Catholics, Persecution of, 19. 

Census, 135. 

Champlain, 10, 25. 

Chinese Exclusion Laws, 141. 

Circumnavigation of the Globe, 5, 8. 

Claims, 

Spanish, 7, 13. 
English, 10, 13, 
French, 12, 13. 
Dutch, 13. 
Conflict of, 13, 26. 
Clark, Explorations of Lewis and, 60, 70, 

132, 162. 
Clay, Henry, 86, 109, 118, 120. 
Clemens, Samuel L., 187. 
Cleveland, Grover, 124. 
Coal, Discovery of Anthracite (1790), 

145. 
Colleges and Universities, 

Harvard College (1636), 165, 166. 
Yale College (1701), 166. 
Universitv of Pennsvlvania (1745), 166. 
Princeton College (1746), 166. 
Columbia College (1754), 166. 
William and Mary College (1693), 167. 
Growth of, in United States, 173. 
Colonies : 
Eii^ijlisli, 

New England, 16, 17. 
Middle, 18, 19. 
Southern, 20, 21. 
French, 

Quebec, 25: 
New France, 25. 

Causes of slow development, 25, 26. 
Dutch, 

New Netherland, 13, 18. 
.\bsorption by English, 18. 
Establishment of English supremacy, 

26-29. 
Government of, 21-25. 
First United Action of, 28. 
Consolidation of, 41, 42. 
Education in, 164, 165. 
Columbus, Christopher, 4-7. 
Compromise of 1850, 86, 87. 
Concrete, 147. 
Confederacy, 89, 90, 92, 122. 



53 



54 



INDEX 



Constitution of the United States, 

Origin, 48. 

Plans and compromises, 48, 49. 

Adoption (1787), 50, 51. 

Amendments to, 62, 90, 96, 117. 

Articles of. Appendix, 1-22. 

Queries on. Appendix, 25-42. 
Constitutional Convention, 50. 
Constructionists, Loose and Strict. (See 

Political Parties.) 
Continental Congress, 

First (1774), 33, 44, 45. 

Second (1775), 34, 45, 83. 
Contract Labor Law, 141. 
Cooper, James Fenimore, 181, 182. 
Copyright. 60, 176. 
Coronado, 6, 7. 

Cotton Gin, Invention of, 84, 149. 
Cuba, 

Discovery of, 5. 

Surrendered by Spain, 75, 133. 

Independence of, 75, 133. 
Currency. (See Financial History.) 
Custer, General, 81. 

Da Gama, Vaseo, 4. 

Dale, Governor, 20. 

Danish West Indies, 134. 

Davis, Jefferson, 92, 96. 

Declaration of Independence, 36, 45, 46, 

179. 
Delaware, 16, 18, 19. 
De Leon, Ponce, 6, 7. 
Democrats. (See Political Parties.) 
Demonetization of Silver (1873), 103. 
De Soto, 6, 7. 
Dewey, Admiral, 75. 
Diaz, Bartholomeo, 4. 
Dinwiddle, Governor, 27. 
Discoveries and Explorations, 

Cape of Good Hope (1487), 4. 

New Route to India (1497), 4. 

San Salvador (1492), 5. 

Cuba and We.st Indies (1492), 5. 

South America (1498), 5. 

Pacific Ocean (1513), 5. 1 

Straits of Magellan (1520), 5. 

Circumnavigation of the Globe, 5, 8. 

Florida (1513), 6. 

Mississippi River (1.539), 7. 

Southwestern section of the present 
United States (1.540), 7. 

America (1497), 7. 

Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras (1498), 8. 

Newfoundland (1583), 8. 

West coast of North America (New 
Albion— 1577), 8. 

New York and Narragansett Bays 
(1524), 10. 

St. Lawrence River (1535), 10; (1608), 

Lake Champlain (1609), 10. 
Mississippi Valley (1673), 10; (1679), 

Greenland, 12. 

Nova Scotia to Chesapeake Bay (1609), 

Hudson River (1609), 12. 
Lewis and Clark Expeditions, 60, 70, 
132, 162. 



Douglas, Stephen A., 87, 88. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 8. 

Dred Scott Decision (1857), 88, 122. 

Dutch, 

Explorations and Discoveries, 12, 13. 

Settlers, 16, 18, 19. 

Edison, Thomas A., 161. 
Education, Progress in. 

Popular Education, 165. 

Education in Colonial Period, 165-170. 

Education in Republic, 171-174. 
Edwards, Jonathan, 178. 
Electricity, 145, 146. 
Emancipation Proclamation, 89, 90, 95. 
Embargo Act (1807), 66. 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 185. 
English, 

Discoveries and Explorations, 7, 8, 10. 

Establishment of Supremacy of, 26-29. 
Erie Canal (1825), 139, 153. 
Excise Laws, 55, 116. 
Explorations, Motives of Early, 

Search for new route to India, 4, 5, 12. 

Search for passage through new con- 
tinent, 5, S. 

Purposes of possession, 5, 6. 

Search for wealth, 6. 

Missionary, 6. 

Search for northwestern passage to 
India, 7, 8. 

Search for passage to China, 12. 
Explorers, 

Diaz, Bartholomeo, 4. 

Da Gama, Vasco, 4. 

Columbus, Christopher, 4. 

Balboa, Nuiicz de, 5. 

Magellan, 5. 

De Leon, Ponce. 6. 

De Soto, 0. 

Coronado, 7. 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, 7. 

Frobisher, Sir Martin. 8. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 8. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 8. 

Verazzani, 10. 

Cartier, 10. 

Champhiin, 10. 

Joliet, 10. 

Marciuette, Father, 10. 

La Salle, 11. 

Hudson, Henrv, 12. 

Lewis and Clark, 60, 70. 
Expositions, Indvistrial, 

Centennial (1876), 162. 

Columbian (1893), 162. 

Pan-American (1901), 162. 

Louisiana Purcha'^e (1904), 162. 

Lewis and Clark Centennial (1905), 
162. 

Ala.ska-Vukon-Pacific (1909), 162. 

Advantages of, 162. 

Farragut, Admiral, 93. 

Federal Reserve Act, 106. 

"Federalist, The." 50, 180. 

Federalists and Anti-Federalists, 54, 116- 

118. (.See Constructionists, Strict 

and Loo.se.) 
Field, Cyrus, 156. 



INDEX 



55 



Field, Eugene, 187. 
Fillmore, President, 120. 
Financial History, 

Money of Colonial and Revolutionary 
times, 99-101. 

Currency after Revolution, 101, 102. 

Currency during Civil War, 122. 

Bimetallism, 102, 103. 

Banking System, 104-106. 

Revenue, 106-108. 

Tariff, 108-110. 

Currency as politico' issue, 124. 
First Continental Congress (1774), 44. 
Florida, 

Discovery of, 6. 

Ceded to Great Britain, 29. 

Purchase, 132. 
Fort Orange (1623), 13. 
Fort Sumter, 93. 

Forts in French and Indian War, 28. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 28, 38, 43, 50, 145, 

166, 170, 178. 
Free Coinage, 103. 
Free Soilers, 120, 121. 
French, 

Discoveries and Explorations, 10-12. 

Efforts to establish an empire in 
America, 25, 26. 

Influence over Indians, 25, 26. 

Aid to colonists during War for In- 
dependence, 38. 
Frobisher, 8. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 87, 121. 
Fulton, Robert, 151. 

Gadsden Purchase, 132, 133. 

Gage, General, 33. 

Garfield, President, 123. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 86. 

Genet Affair, The, 57. 

Georgia, 20, 21. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 8. 

Gold, Discovery of, in California (1848), 

139. 
Government, Forms of Colonial, 
Charter, 21, 22. 
Proprietary, 22. 
Royal, or Provincial, 22, 23. 
Features and differences in three forms, 

23. 
Effects! 23, 24. 
Local Types, 

Town System (New England), 24. 
County System (Virginia), 24, 25. 
Mixed Township-County systems 
(Middle region), 25. 
Grant, General, 81, 9.3-96, 123. 
Gray, Robert, 70. 
Greene, General, 39. 
Greenland, Exploration of, 12. 
Guam ceded to LTnited States, 133. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 50, 54, 104, 115, 

117, 179, 180. 
Hancock, John, 34, 36. 
Harper's Ferry, 88. 
Harrison, President, 120. 
Hawaii, Annexation of (1898), 133. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 184, 185. 
Hayes, President, 90. 



Heating, 145, 146. 

Henry, Patrick, 32. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 184. 

Howells, William Dean, 187. 

Hudson, Henry, 12, 13. 

Hudson River, Exploration of, 12. 

Hughes, Charles E., 125. 

Hutchinson, Anne, 32. 

Immigration, 

Table of, 139. 

Growth of population by, 139, 140. 

Nationality of immigrants, 140, 141. 

Character of early immigrants, 141. 

Later immigrants, 141. 

Problems of, 141, 142. 
Imperialistic Policy, 124, 125, 190. . 
Independence, Declaration of, 36, 45, 46, 

179. 
India, 

Trade with, 4. 

Search for route to, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12. 
Indians, 

Relations with, in New England and 
Middle Colonies, 19. 

Alliance with French, 26. 

Iroquois alliance with English, 26. 

Relations with whites, 79. 

Conflicts, 80, 81. 

Reservations for, 81, 82. 

Creeks, 81. 

Seminoles, 81. 
Indigo, Cultivation of, 21. 
Inventions, 

Printing press, gunpowder, astrolabe, 
compass, 3. 

Cotton gin, 84. 

Robert Fulton's steamboat, 139, 151. 

Steam railroads (1835), 139. 

Hargreaves's spinning-jenny (1764), 
147. 

Howe's sewing machine (1845), 147. 

Whitney's cotton gin (1793), 149. 

Grain elevator, 1.50. 

McCormick's reaping machine (1834), 
150. 

Canning and preserving processes, 
150. 

Cold storage, 150. 

Ericsson's screw propeller, 151. 

Steam locomotive, 152. 

Trolley car, 1.52. 

Bicycle and automobile, 153. 

Balloon and aeroplane, 15.5. 

Morse's telegraph (1844), 156. 

Cyrus Field's submarine cable (1866), 
156. 

Wireless telegraphy, 157. 

Alexander Bell's telephone, 157. 

Guns, 157, 158. 

Submarine, 158, 1.59. 

Steel-clad battleships, 158. 

Smokeless powder, 158. 

Hoe's steam printing press, 159. 

Ana'sthetics (Dr. Morton) (1846), 160. 

Antiseptics, X-rays, etc., 161. 

Photography and the Phonograph, 
161. 

Dictaphone, 161. 
Irving, Washington, 180, 181. 



66 



INDEX 



Jackson, Andrew, 81. 105, 109, 119, 133. 

James, Henry, 187. 

Jamestown, Settlement of, 20. 

Jav, John, .50, 57, 115, 179. 

Jefferson, Thomas, 36, 54, 60, 02, 102. 

116-1 IS, 171, 179. 
Johnson, President, 95, 96. 
Joliet, 10, 25. 

Kansas and Nebraska Bill (1854), 87, 121. 
Knox, Henry, 115. 

Lafayette, 39. 

Lake Champlain, Discovery of, 10. 

La Salle, 11, 12, 25, 26. 

Lee, Richard Henrv, 36. 

Lee, General Robert E., 93-95. 

Lewis, Explorations of Clark and, 60, 

70, 132, 162. 
Lexington, Battle of, 34. 
Lighting, 146, 147. 
Lincoln, Abraham, SS-90, 92, 95, 122. 
Literature, American, 

Origin and growth of, 176, 177. 

The Colonial Period, 177, 178. 

The Revolutionary Period, 178-180. 

Development of, 180-186. 

Historians, 186. 

Recent Writers, 187. 
London Companv, 20. 
Longfellow, Henry W., 183. 184. 
Louisiana, 

Naming of, 12. 

Ceded to Spain, 29. 

Purchase, 131. 132. 
Lowell, James Russell, 185, 186. 

Machinery, Labor-saving, 144, 145. 

Madison, James, 50, 179. 

Magellan, 5. 

Mann, Horace, 171. 

Manufacturing, 147. 

Marquette, 10, 25. 

Marvland, Founding of, 19. 

Mather, Cotton, 178. 

McKinley, William, 124, 125. 

Medicine and Surgerj', 160, 161. 

Menendez, 7. 

Mexico, Relations with, 73, 74. 

Mint, Establishment of, 102. 

Missionaries. French, 25. 

Mississippi River, Discovery of, 7. 

Mississippi Valley, Exploration of, 10, 11. 

Missouri Compromise (1820), 84. 86, 

87, 121. 
Alonroe Doctrine, 59. 
Monroe, James, 59, 61, 118. 
Montcalm, 29. 

Morris, Robert, 29, 37, 102, 104. 
Morse, S. F. B., 156. 
Motion Picture Industry, 161, 174. 
Motley, John Lothrop, 186. 

Xarragansett Bay. Exploration of, 10. 

National Bank Act, 122, 123. 

Navigation Acts, 31. 

Navy, United States, Growth of. 159. 

New Albion, 8. 

New Amsterdam. 18. 



New England, 

Name of English possessions, 16. 

Puritans in, 16, 17. 

Attitude towards education. 165, 166. 
New England Confederacy, 42. 
New France, 12. 
New Jersey, Settlement of, 18. 
New Netherland, 

Naming of, 12, 13. 

Name changed to New York (1664), 13. 

-■^ttjtude towards education, 166. 
New Sweden, 18. 
Newspaper, Growth and importance of, 

160, 169, 170. 
Non-Intercourse Act (1809), 66. 
Nullification Act, 109, 119. 

Oglethorpe, 21. 

Ohio River, Exploration of, 15. 
Omnibus Bill (1850), 86, 87, 121. 
Ordinance of 1787, 56, 81. 
Oregon Boundary, 70, 132. 
Otis, James, 32. 

Pacific Ocean, Discovery of, 5. 

Paine, Thomas, 36, 179. 

Panama Canal, 134, 1.54. 

Panics, Financial, 105, 120, 1.54. 

Parkman, Francis, 186. 

Patents, 60, 144. 

Penn, William, 18, 19, 22, 43, 53. 

Pennsylvania, 18, 19. 

People's Party, 124. 

Petroleum, Discovery of (1850), 146. 

Philippines, 74, 124, 133. 

Photography, 161. 

Pierce, President, 121. 

Pilgrims, 17. 

Pine-Tree Shilling, 100. 

Pitt, Sir William, 29. 

Plymouth Companv, 20. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 185. 

Political Parties, 

Strict and Loose Constructionists, 113. 
114, lis, 120-123. 

Federalists and Anti-Federalists, 54, 
113, 114. 

Origin of Parties. 113, 114. 

Federalists and Republicans, 114-117. 

Democratic and Whig parties, 118- 
121. 

Slavery and Civil War political ques- 
tions, 120-123. 

Recent political issues, 123-126. 

Prohibition Party, 123. 

Woman Suffrage Party, 123. 

I'eople's Party, 124. 

Progressives, 125. 
Polk, President, 120. 
Ponce de Leon, 6, 7. 
Population, 134. 

Census, 135. 

Growth of, 13.5, 1.30. 

Tendencv to citv life, 13G. 

Centre of, 137. 

Impulses to Western expansion, 138. 
Porto Rico, 75, 133. 
Prescott, William H., 186. 
Printing Press (1639), 159, 160, 177. 



INDEX 



57 



Problems of To-day and the Near Future, 

Expansion, 190, 191. 

Arbitration, 191, 192. 

League to Enforce Peace, 192, 193. 

Industrial problems, 194, 195. 

Labor problems, 19.5, 196. 

Social Legislation, 196, 197. 

Preparedness, 197, 198. 

Civil service reform, 198, 199. 

State and city government, 199, 200, 201. 

Race problems, 202. 

Prohibition, 203. 

Woman suffrage, 203, 204. 

Americanization of the Foreigner, 204, 
205. 
Progress in Science and Useful Arts, 

American enterprise and inventiveness, 
144. 

Labor-saving machinery, 144, 145. 

Heating, 145, 146. 

Lighting, 146, 147. 

Manufacturing, 147. 

Building, 147, 148. 

Agriculture, 149, 150. 

Travel and transportation, 151-155. 

Communication, 155-157. 

Warfare, 157, 158. 

Printing, 159, 160. 

Medicine and surgery, 160, 161. 

Industrial expositions, 161, 162. 
Puritans, 16-18. 

Quakers, 

Influence of, 16. 

Persecution of, 17. 

Characteristics, 19. 

Attitude toward slaverj', 83. 

Attitude toward education, 166. 
Quebec, 

Strategic position, 28. 

Fall of, 29. 

Failure to capture, 35. 

Settlement of, 10, 25. 

Railroads, steam, 1.39, 1.52. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 8, 20. 

Reconstruction, 95, 96, 123. 

Renascence, 3-6. 

Revenue, Raising, 106-108. 

Revolution, 31-39. 

Rice, Cultivation of, in Southern colonies, 

21. 
Richmond, 94, 95. 
Rilev, James Whitcomb, 187. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 125, 134. 

St. Augustine, Settlement of, 7. 

St. Lawrence River, Discovery and Ex- 
ploration of, 10. 

Samoa, 134. 

Sampson, Admiral, 75. 

San Salvador, Discovery of, 5. 

Schley, Admiral, 75. 

Second Continental Congress (1775), 45. 

Separatists. (See Puritans.) 

Settlements in .\merica, 

St. Augustine (1.565), first permanent 

Spanish, 7. 
Quebec (1608), first permanent 
French, 10, 25. 



Settlements in America — Continued 

Virginia (1607), first permanent 
English, 20. 
Sherman Act (1890), 103. 
Sherman, General, 94, 95. 
Silver Question, 103. 
Slavery, 

Tobacco and, 20. 

Source of dispute in Constitutional 
Convention, 48-50. 

Prohibited in Northwest Territory, 
56. 

Source of agitation up to Civil War, 82, 
83 

Civil War (1861-1865), 91-96. 
Smith, John, 20. 
South America, Discovery of, 5. 
Spanish Cessions, 133. 
Spanish discoveries and explorations, 7. 
Squatter sovereignty, 87, 121. 
Stamp Act, 32. 
Stamp Act Congress, 44. 
State Rights, 92. 

States admitted to the Union, 61. 
Steamboat, Invention of, 139, 151. 
Steuben, Baron, 38. 
Stevens, Thaddeus, 171. 
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 87, 185. 
Submarine, 158, 159. 
Swedish settlers, 16, 18. 

Taft, William H., 74, 125, 142. 
Tariff, 59, 82, 108-110, 119, 122-124. 
Taxation, 

Of Colonies, 31, 32. 

Federal, 107 
Taylor, President, 120. 
Telegraph and Telephone, 156, 157. 
Territorial Growth and Population, 

Table of Territorial .Acquisitions, 129. 

Causes of growth and prosperity, 129- 
131. 

Acquisitions of Territory, 131-133. 

Population of the United States, 135- 
138. 

Immigration, 138-142. 
Territories, 

Northwest (Ordinance of 1787), 55, 56. 

Louisiana Purchase, 60. 

Oregon Boundary Dispute, 69, 70. 

Texas, 71, 129. 

Porto Rico, 76. 

Philippines, 76. 

Florida, 81. 
Texas, Annexation of, 86, 129. 
Tobacco, Effects of its Discoverj-, 20. 
Town System, 24. 
Treaties, 

Between Dutch Settlers and .American 
Indians (1623), 13. 

French and Indian War (1763), 29. 

War for Independence (1783), 39. 

War of 1812, 69. 

Oregon Boundary Dispute (1846), 69, 
70, 132. 

War with Mexico (1848), 72, 132, 133. 

Spanish-American War (1898). 76, 133. 

Alabama Claim (1871), 96. 
Twain, Mark, 187. 
Tyler, President, 120. 



68 



INDEX 



Union, First Attempt at, 28, 43. 
United States Army and Navy, 159. 
Universities. (See Colleges and.) 

Van Burei>, President, 105, 120. 

Verazzani, 10. 

Virginia, 

Naming of, 8. 

Settlement of, 20. 

Campaigns in, 94. 

Attitude towards education, 167. 

Wars: 

Intercolonial, 

King William's War (1089-1697), 27. 

Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), 27. 

King George's War (1744-1748), 27. 

French and Indian (1754-1763), 13, 
26-28, 78. 
War for Independence (1775-1783), 

Causes, 31-35. 

Principal Events, 34-39. 

Treaty of Peace, 39. 
War of 1812 (Second War for Inde- 
pendence), 

Causes, 58, 66. 

Losses and Victories, 68. 

Effects, 69. 
War with Tripoli (1801), 65. 
Mexican War (1846-1848). 

Causes, 70, 71. 

Campaign, 72. 

Results, 72. 
Civil War (1861-1865), 

Causes, 91, 92. 

Events, 92-95. 

Effects, 95, 96. 



Wars — Continued 

Spanish-American War (1898), 
Causes, 74. 
Events, 74, 75. 

Terms of Treaty, 75, 124, 125, 133. 
European (1914- ), 
Causes, 77. 
Events, 77. 
Indian Wars, 

Pequot (1637), 80. 
King Philip's War (1675), 80. 
Black Hawk (1S32), 81. 
Modo (1872), 81. 
■ Sioux (1876), 81. 
Washington, George, 27, 28, 34, 35, 48, 

49, 51, 55, 115, 116, 171. 
Wayne, General Anthony, 81. 
West Indies, 

Discovery of, 5. 

Spanish, ceded to United States (1899), 
133. 
Wliigs, 118-121. 
Whisky Rebellion (1794), 55. 
Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 70. 
Whitney. Eli, 84, 149. 
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 87, 182, 183. 
Williams, Roger, 17. 
Wilmot Proviso (1848), 86. 
Wilson, Woodrow, 125, 126, 142. 
Wolfe, General, 29. 
Woman Suffrage Party, 115, 123, 203, 

204. 
Writs of Assistance, 31. 

X-ray, 161. 




MAP OF THE 
FNITED STATES 

AND US POSSESSIOJfS 



Scale of Miles 



100 200 300 400 50O 

Zp ^V,^ / BAHA^^ 1 NOTE: The maps of Hawaii, Samoa. Guam and 

^-Jf ^ ^ I T''»''« !'■ "■»« >"ale as map of Phllippiiw IslanJs. 

KejWest*-' (\ \ 

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